RTI: Academic Interventions for Difficult-to-Teach Students Jim Wright www.interventioncentral.org

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RTI Academic Interventions for
Difficult-to-Teach StudentsJim
Wrightwww.interventioncentral.org
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Workshop Materials at

• http//www.jimwrightonline.com/windsor.php

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Workshop Agenda
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The Key RTI Role of Classroom Teachers as Tier 1
Interventionists 6 Steps

1. The teacher defines the student academic or
   behavioral problem clearly.
2. The teacher decides on the best explanation for
   why the problem is occurring.
3. The teacher selects evidence-based
   interventions.
4. The teacher documents the students Tier 1
   intervention plan.
5. The teacher monitors the students response
   (progress) to the intervention plan.
6. The teacher knows what the next steps are when a
   student fails to make adequate progress with Tier
   1 interventions alone.

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RTI Intervention Key Concepts
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Essential Elements of Any Academic or Behavioral
Intervention (Treatment) Strategy

• Method of delivery (Who or what delivers the
  treatment?)Examples include teachers,
  paraprofessionals, parents, volunteers,
  computers.
• Treatment component (What makes the intervention
  effective?)Examples include activation of prior
  knowledge to help the student to make meaningful
  connections between known and new material
  guide practice (e.g., Paired Reading) to increase
  reading fluency periodic review of material to
  aid student retention.

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Core Instruction, Interventions, Accommodations
Modifications Sorting Them Out

• Core Instruction. Those instructional strategies
  that are used routinely with all students in a
  general-education setting are considered core
  instruction. High-quality instruction is
  essential and forms the foundation of RTI
  academic support. NOTE While it is important to
  verify that good core instructional practices are
  in place for a struggling student, those routine
  practices do not count as individual student
  interventions.

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Core Instruction, Interventions, Accommodations
Modifications Sorting Them Out

• Intervention. An academic intervention is a
  strategy used to teach a new skill, build fluency
  in a skill, or encourage a child to apply an
  existing skill to new situations or settings. An
  intervention can be thought of as a set of
  actions that, when taken, have demonstrated
  ability to change a fixed educational trajectory
  (Methe Riley-Tillman, 2008 p. 37).

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Core Instruction, Interventions, Accommodations
Modifications Sorting Them Out

• Accommodation. An accommodation is intended to
  help the student to fully access and participate
  in the general-education curriculum without
  changing the instructional content and without
  reducing the students rate of learning (Skinner,
  Pappas Davis, 2005). An accommodation is
  intended to remove barriers to learning while
  still expecting that students will master the
  same instructional content as their typical
  peers.
• Accommodation example 1 Students are allowed to
  supplement silent reading of a novel by listening
  to the book on tape.
• Accommodation example 2 For unmotivated
  students, the instructor breaks larger
  assignments into smaller chunks and providing
  students with performance feedback and praise for
  each completed chunk of assigned work (Skinner,
  Pappas Davis, 2005).

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Teaching is giving it isnt taking away.
(Howell, Hosp Kurns, 2008 p. 356).


Source Howell, K. W., Hosp, J. L., Kurns, S.
(2008). Best practices in curriculum-based
evaluation. In A. Thomas J. Grimes (Eds.), Best
practices in school psychology V (pp.349-362).
Bethesda, MD National Association of School
Psychologists..
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Core Instruction, Interventions, Accommodations
Modifications Sorting Them Out

• Modification. A modification changes the
  expectations of what a student is expected to
  know or dotypically by lowering the academic
  standards against which the student is to be
  evaluated. Examples of modifications
• Giving a student five math computation problems
  for practice instead of the 20 problems assigned
  to the rest of the class
• Letting the student consult course notes during a
  test when peers are not permitted to do so

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Academic Interventions Critical Components
Checklist
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Academic Interventions Critical Components
Checklist
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Academic Interventions Critical Components
Checklist

• This checklist summarizes the essential
  components of academic interventions. When
  preparing a students Tier 1, 2, or 3 academic
  intervention plan, use this document as a
  pre-flight checklist to ensure that the
  academic intervention is of high quality, is
  sufficiently strong to address the identified
  student problem, is fully understood and
  supported by the teacher, and can be implemented
  with integrity. NOTE While the checklist refers
  to the teacher as the interventionist, it can
  also be used as a guide to ensure the quality of
  interventions implemented by non-instructional
  personnel, adult volunteers, parents, and peer
  (student) tutors.

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Allocating Sufficient Contact Time Assuring Appropriate Student-Teacher Ratio Allocating Sufficient Contact Time Assuring Appropriate Student-Teacher Ratio Allocating Sufficient Contact Time Assuring Appropriate Student-Teacher Ratio
The cumulative time set aside for an intervention and the amount of direct teacher contact are two factors that help to determine that interventions strength (Yeaton Sechrest, 1981). The cumulative time set aside for an intervention and the amount of direct teacher contact are two factors that help to determine that interventions strength (Yeaton Sechrest, 1981). The cumulative time set aside for an intervention and the amount of direct teacher contact are two factors that help to determine that interventions strength (Yeaton Sechrest, 1981).
Critical Item? Intervention Element Notes
? Time Allocated. The time set aside for the intervention is appropriate for the type and level of student problem (Burns Gibbons, 2008 Kratochwill, Clements Kalymon, 2007). When evaluating whether the amount of time allocated is adequate, consider Length of each intervention session. Frequency of sessions (e.g.., daily, 3 times per week) Duration of intervention period (e.g., 6 instructional weeks)
? Student-Teacher Ratio. The student receives sufficient contact from the teacher or other person delivering the intervention to make that intervention effective. NOTE Generally, supplemental intervention groups should be limited to 6-7 students (Burns Gibbons, 2008).
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Matching the Intervention to the Student Problem Matching the Intervention to the Student Problem Matching the Intervention to the Student Problem
Academic interventions are not selected at random. First, the student academic problem(s) is defined clearly and in detail. Then, the likely explanations for the academic problem(s) are identified to understand which intervention(s) are likely to helpand which should be avoided. Academic interventions are not selected at random. First, the student academic problem(s) is defined clearly and in detail. Then, the likely explanations for the academic problem(s) are identified to understand which intervention(s) are likely to helpand which should be avoided. Academic interventions are not selected at random. First, the student academic problem(s) is defined clearly and in detail. Then, the likely explanations for the academic problem(s) are identified to understand which intervention(s) are likely to helpand which should be avoided.
Critical Item? Intervention Element Notes
? Problem Definition. The student academic problem(s) to be addressed in the intervention are defined in clear, specific, measureable terms (Bergan, 1995 Witt, VanDerHeyden Gilbertson, 2004). The full problem definition describes Conditions. Describe the environmental conditions or task demands in place when the academic problem is observed. Problem Description. Describe the actual observable academic behavior in which the student is engaged. Include rate, accuracy, or other quantitative information of student performance. Typical or Expected Level of Performance. Provide a typical or expected performance criterion for this skill or behavior. Typical or expected academic performance can be calculated using a variety of sources,
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Matching the Intervention to the Student Problem (Cont.) Matching the Intervention to the Student Problem (Cont.) Matching the Intervention to the Student Problem (Cont.)
Critical Item? Intervention Element Notes
? Appropriate Target. Selected intervention(s) are appropriate for the identified student problem(s) (Burns, VanDerHeyden Boice, 2008). TIP Use the Instructional Hierarchy (Haring et al., 1978) to select academic interventions according to the four stages of learning Acquisition. The student has begun to learn how to complete the target skill correctly but is not yet accurate in the skill. Interventions should improve accuracy. Fluency. The student is able to complete the target skill accurately but works slowly. Interventions should increase the students speed of responding (fluency) as well as to maintain accuracy. Generalization. The student may have acquired the target skill but does not typically use it in the full range of appropriate situations or settings. Or the student may confuse the target skill with similar skills. Interventions should get the student to use the skill in the widest possible range of settings and situations, or to accurately discriminate between the target skill and similar skills. Adaptation. The student is not yet able to modify or adapt an existing skill to fit novel task-demands or situations. Interventions should help the student to identify key concepts or elements from previously learned skills that can be adapted to the new demands or situations.
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Matching the Intervention to the Student Problem (Cont.) Matching the Intervention to the Student Problem (Cont.) Matching the Intervention to the Student Problem (Cont.)
Critical Item? Intervention Element Notes
? Cant Do/Wont Do Check. The teacher has determined whether the student problem is primarily a skill or knowledge deficit (cant do) or whether student motivation plays a main or supporting role in academic underperformance (wont do). If motivation appears to be a significant factor contributing to the problem, the intervention plan includes strategies to engage the student (e.g., high interest learning activities rewards/incentives increased student choice in academic assignments, etc.) (Skinner, Pappas Davis, 2005 Witt, VanDerHeyden Gilbertson, 2004).
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Activity Matching the Intervention to the
Student Problem

• Consider these critical aspects of academic
  intervention
• Clear and specific problem-identification
  statement (Conditions, Problem Description,
  Typical/Expected Level of Performance).
• Appropriate intervention target (e.g., selected
  intervention is appropriately matched to
  Acquisition, Fluency, Generalization, or
  Adaptation phase of Instructional Hierarchy).
• Cant Do/Wont Do Check (Clarification of whether
  motivation plays a significant role in student
  academic underperformance).
• What questions do you have about applying any of
  these concepts when planning classroom
  interventions?

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Incorporating Effective Instructional Elements Incorporating Effective Instructional Elements Incorporating Effective Instructional Elements
These effective building blocks of instruction are well-known and well-supported by the research. They should be considered when selecting or creating any academic intervention. These effective building blocks of instruction are well-known and well-supported by the research. They should be considered when selecting or creating any academic intervention. These effective building blocks of instruction are well-known and well-supported by the research. They should be considered when selecting or creating any academic intervention.
Critical Item? Intervention Element Notes
? Explicit Instruction. Student skills have been broken down into manageable and deliberately sequenced steps and the teacher provided overt strategies for students to learn and practice new skills (Burns, VanDerHeyden Boice, 2008, p.1153).
? Appropriate Level of Challenge. The student experienced sufficient success in the academic task(s) to shape learning in the desired direction as well as to maintain student motivation (Burns, VanDerHeyden Boice, 2008).
? Active Engagement. The intervention ensures that the student is engaged in active accurate responding (Skinner, Pappas Davis, 2005).at a rate frequent enough to capture student attention and to optimize effective learning.
? Performance Feedback. The student receives prompt performance feedback about the work completed (Burns, VanDerHeyden Boice, 2008).
? Maintenance of Academic Standards. If the intervention includes any accommodations to better support the struggling learner (e.g., preferential seating, breaking a longer assignment into smaller chunks), those accommodations do not substantially lower the academic standards against which the student is to be evaluated and are not likely to reduce the students rate of learning (Skinner, Pappas Davis, 2005).
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Activity Incorporating Effective Instructional
Elements

• Think about the effective instructional elements
  reviewed in this workshop.
• How can teachers ensure that all effective
  instructional elements are included in academic
  interventions?

Incorporating Effective Instructional Elements Incorporating Effective Instructional Elements Incorporating Effective Instructional Elements
Critical Item? Intervention Element Notes
? Explicit Instruction.
? Appropriate Level of Challenge.
? Active Engagement..
? Performance Feedback.
? Maintenance of Academic Standards.
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Verifying Teacher Understanding Providing Teacher Support Verifying Teacher Understanding Providing Teacher Support Verifying Teacher Understanding Providing Teacher Support
The teacher is an active agent in the intervention, with primary responsibility for putting it into practice in a busy classroom. It is important, then, that the teacher fully understands how to do the intervention, believes that he or she can do it, and knows whom to seek out if there are problems with the intervention. The teacher is an active agent in the intervention, with primary responsibility for putting it into practice in a busy classroom. It is important, then, that the teacher fully understands how to do the intervention, believes that he or she can do it, and knows whom to seek out if there are problems with the intervention. The teacher is an active agent in the intervention, with primary responsibility for putting it into practice in a busy classroom. It is important, then, that the teacher fully understands how to do the intervention, believes that he or she can do it, and knows whom to seek out if there are problems with the intervention.
Critical Item? Intervention Element Notes
? Teacher Responsibility. The teacher understands his or her responsibility to implement the academic intervention(s) with integrity.
? Teacher Acceptability. The teacher states that he or she finds the academic intervention feasible and acceptable for the identified student problem.
? Step-by-Step Intervention Script. The essential steps of the intervention are written as an intervention script--a series of clearly described stepsto ensure teacher understanding and make implementation easier (Hawkins, Morrison, Musti-Rao Hawkins, 2008).
? Intervention Training. If the teacher requires training to carry out the intervention, that training has been arranged.
? Intervention Elements Negotiable vs. Non-Negotiable. The teacher knows all of the steps of the intervention. Additionally, the teacher knows which of the intervention steps are non-negotiable (they must be completed exactly as designed) and which are negotiable (the teacher has some latitude in how to carry out those steps) (Hawkins, Morrison, Musti-Rao Hawkins, 2008).
? Assistance With the Intervention. If the intervention cannot be implemented as designed for any reason (e.g., student absence, lack of materials, etc.), the teacher knows how to get assistance quickly to either fix the problem(s) to the current intervention or to change the intervention.
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Activity Verifying Teacher Understanding
Providing Teacher Support

• In your teams
• Review the checklist for verifying that teachers
  understand all elements of the intervention and
  actively support its use.
• How will your school ensure that teachers will
  understand and support academic interventions
  designed to be implemented in the classroom?

Verifying Teacher Understanding Providing Teacher Support
Critical Item? Intervention Element
? Teacher Responsibility
? Teacher Acceptability.
? Step-by-Step Intervention Script.
? Intervention Training.
? Intervention Elements Negotiable vs. Non-Negotiable
? Assistance With the Intervention
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Documenting the Intervention Collecting Data Documenting the Intervention Collecting Data Documenting the Intervention Collecting Data
Interventions only have meaning if they are done within a larger data-based context. For example, interventions that lack baseline data, goal(s) for improvement, and a progress-monitoring plan are fatally flawed (Witt, VanDerHeyden Gilbertson, 2004). Interventions only have meaning if they are done within a larger data-based context. For example, interventions that lack baseline data, goal(s) for improvement, and a progress-monitoring plan are fatally flawed (Witt, VanDerHeyden Gilbertson, 2004). Interventions only have meaning if they are done within a larger data-based context. For example, interventions that lack baseline data, goal(s) for improvement, and a progress-monitoring plan are fatally flawed (Witt, VanDerHeyden Gilbertson, 2004).
Critical Item? Intervention Element Notes
? Intervention Documentation. The teacher understands and can manage all documentation required for this intervention (e.g., maintaining a log of intervention sessions, etc.).
? Checkup Date. Before the intervention begins, a future checkup date is selected to review the intervention to determine if it is successful. Time elapsing between the start of the intervention and the checkup date should be short enough to allow a timely review of the intervention but long enough to give the school sufficient time to judge with confidence whether the intervention worked.
? Baseline. Before the intervention begins, the teacher has collected information about the students baseline level of performance in the identified area(s) of academic concern (Witt, VanDerHeyden Gilbertson, 2004).
? Goal. Before the intervention begins, the teacher has set a specific goal for predicted student improvement to use as a minimum standard for success (Witt, VanDerHeyden Gilbertson, 2004). The goal is the expected student outcome by the checkup date if the intervention is successful.
? Progress-Monitoring. During the intervention, the teacher collects progress-monitoring data of sufficient quality and at a sufficient frequency to determine at the checkup date whether that intervention is successful (Witt, VanDerHeyden Gilbertson, 2004).
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Activity Documenting the Intervention
Collecting Data

• In your teams
• Consider the elements of intervention
  documentation, data collection, and data
  interpretation discussed here.
• What steps can your school take to make sure
  that data have a central focus when
  interventionsare planned and implemented?

Documenting the Intervention Collecting Data Documenting the Intervention Collecting Data Documenting the Intervention Collecting Data
Critical Item? Intervention Element Notes
? Intervention Documentation.
? Checkup Date.
? Baseline.
? Goal.
? Progress-Monitoring.
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References

• Bergan, J. R. (1995). Evolution of a
  problem-solving model of consultation. Journal of
  Educational and Psychological Consultation, 6(2),
  111-123.
• Burns, M. K., Gibbons, K. A. (2008).
  Implementing response-to-intervention in
  elementary and secondary schools. Routledge New
  York.
• Burns, M. K., VanDerHeyden, A. M., Boice, C. H.
  (2008). Best practices in intensive academic
  interventions. In A. Thomas J. Grimes (Eds.),
  Best practices in school psychology V
  (pp.1151-1162). Bethesda, MD National
  Association of School Psychologists.
• Haring, N.G., Lovitt, T.C., Eaton, M.D.,
  Hansen, C.L. (1978). The fourth R Research in
  the classroom. Columbus, OH Charles E. Merrill
  Publishing Co.
• Hawkins, R. O., Morrison, J. Q., Musti-Rao, S.,
  Hawkins, J. A. (2008). Treatment integrity for
  academic interventions in real- world settings.
  School Psychology Forum, 2(3), 1-15.
• Kratochwill, T. R., Clements, M. A., Kalymon,
  K. M. (2007). Response to intervention
  Conceptual and methodological issues in
  implementation. In Jimerson, S. R., Burns, M. K.,
  VanDerHeyden, A. M. (Eds.), Handbook of
  response to intervention The science and
  practice of assessment and intervention. New
  York Springer.
• Skinner, C. H., Pappas, D. N., Davis, K. A.
  (2005). Enhancing academic engagement Providing
  opportunities for responding and influencing
  students to choose to respond. Psychology in the
  Schools, 42, 389-403.
• Witt, J. C., VanDerHeyden, A. M., Gilbertson,
  D. (2004). Troubleshooting behavioral
  interventions. A systematic process for finding
  and eliminating problems. School Psychology
  Review, 33, 363-383. 
• Yeaton, W. M. Sechrest, L. (1981). Critical
  dimensions in the choice and maintenance of
  successful treatments Strength, integrity, and
  effectiveness. Journal of Consulting and Clinical
  Psychology, 49, 156-167.

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RTI Assumption Struggling Students Are Typical
Until Proven Otherwise

• RTI logic assumes that
• A student who begins to struggle in general
  education is typical, and that
• It is general educations responsibility to find
  the instructional strategies that will unlock the
  students learning potential
• Only when the student shows through
  well-documented interventions that he or she has
  failed to respond to intervention does RTI
  begin to investigate the possibility that the
  student may have a learning disability or other
  special education condition.

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School Instructional Time The Irreplaceable
Resource

• In the average school system, there are 330
  minutes in the instructional day, 1,650 minutes
  in the instructional week, and 56,700 minutes in
  the instructional year. Except in unusual
  circumstances, these are the only minutes we have
  to provide effective services for students. The
  number of years we have to apply these minutes is
  fixed. Therefore, each minute counts and schools
  cannot afford to support inefficient models of
  service delivery. p. 177

Source Batsche, G. M., Castillo, J. M., Dixon,
D. N., Forde, S. (2008). Best practices in
problem analysis. In A. Thomas J. Grimes
(Eds.), Best practices in school psychology V
(pp. 177-193).
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RTI Best Practicesin MathematicsInterventionsJ
im Wrightwww.interventioncentral.org
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National Mathematics Advisory Panel Report13
March 2008
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Math Advisory Panel Report athttp//www.ed.gov/
mathpanel
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2008 National Math Advisory Panel Report
Recommendations

• The areas to be studied in mathematics from
  pre-kindergarten through eighth grade should be
  streamlined and a well-defined set of the most
  important topics should be emphasized in the
  early grades. Any approach that revisits topics
  year after year without bringing them to closure
  should be avoided.
• Proficiency with whole numbers, fractions, and
  certain aspects of geometry and measurement are
  the foundations for algebra. Of these, knowledge
  of fractions is the most important foundational
  skill not developed among American students.
• Conceptual understanding, computational and
  procedural fluency, and problem solving skills
  are equally important and mutually reinforce each
  other. Debates regarding the relative importance
  of each of these components of mathematics are
  misguided.
• Students should develop immediate recall of
  arithmetic facts to free the working memory for
  solving more complex problems.

Source National Math Panel Fact Sheet. (March
2008). Retrieved on March 14, 2008, from
http//www.ed.gov/about/bdscomm/list/mathpanel/rep
ort/final-factsheet.html
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An RTI Challenge Limited Research to Support
Evidence-Based Math Interventions

• in contrast to reading, core math programs
  that are supported by research, or that have been
  constructed according to clear research-based
  principles, are not easy to identify. Not only
  have exemplary core programs not been identified,
  but also there are no tools available that we
  know of that will help schools analyze core math
  programs to determine their alignment with clear
  research-based principles. p. 459

Source Clarke, B., Baker, S., Chard, D.
(2008). Best practices in mathematics assessment
and intervention with elementary students. In A.
Thomas J. Grimes (Eds.), Best practices in
school psychology V (pp. 453-463).
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Math Intervention Planning Some Challenges for
Elementary RTI Teams

• There is no national consensus about what math
  instruction should look like in elementary
  schools
• Schools may not have consistent expectations for
  the best practice math instruction strategies
  that teachers should routinely use in the
  classroom
• Schools may not have a full range of assessment
  methods to collect baseline and progress
  monitoring data on math difficulties

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Profile of Students With Significant Math
Difficulties

• Spatial organization. The student commits errors
  such as misaligning numbers in columns in a
  multiplication problem or confusing
  directionality in a subtraction problem (and
  subtracting the original numberminuendfrom the
  figure to be subtracted (subtrahend).
• Visual detail. The student misreads a
  mathematical sign or leaves out a decimal or
  dollar sign in the answer.
• Procedural errors. The student skips or adds a
  step in a computation sequence. Or the student
  misapplies a learned rule from one arithmetic
  procedure when completing another, different
  arithmetic procedure.
• Inability to shift psychological set. The
  student does not shift from one operation type
  (e.g., addition) to another (e.g.,
  multiplication) when warranted.
• Graphomotor. The students poor handwriting can
  cause him or her to misread handwritten numbers,
  leading to errors in computation.
• Memory. The student fails to remember a specific
  math fact needed to solve a problem. (The student
  may KNOW the math fact but not be able to recall
  it at point of performance.)
• Judgment and reasoning. The student comes up with
  solutions to problems that are clearly
  unreasonable. However, the student is not able
  adequately to evaluate those responses to gauge
  whether they actually make sense in context.

Source Rourke, B. P. (1993). Arithmetic
disabilities, specific otherwise A
neuropsychological perspective. Journal of
Learning Disabilities, 26, 214-226.
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Mathematics is made of 50 percent formulas, 50
percent proofs, and 50 percent imagination.
Anonymous
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The Elements of Mathematical Proficiency What
the Experts Say
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Five Strands of Mathematical Proficiency

1. Understanding Comprehending mathematical
   concepts, operations, and relations--knowing what
   mathematical symbols, diagrams, and procedures
   mean.
2. Computing Carrying out mathematical procedures,
   such as adding, subtracting, multiplying, and
   dividing numbers flexibly, accurately,
   efficiently, and appropriately.
3. Applying Being able to formulate problems
   mathematically and to devise strategies for
   solving them using concepts and procedures
   appropriately.

Source National Research Council. (2002).
Helping children learn mathematics. Mathematics
Learning Study Committee, J. Kilpatrick J.
Swafford, Editors, Center for Education, Division
of Behavioral and Social Sciences and Education.
Washington, DC National Academy Press.
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Five Strands of Mathematical Proficiency (Cont.)

1. Reasoning Using logic to explain and justify a
   solution to a problem or to extend from something
   known to something less known.
2. Engaging Seeing mathematics as sensible, useful,
   and doableif you work at itand being willing to
   do the work.

Source National Research Council. (2002).
Helping children learn mathematics. Mathematics
Learning Study Committee, J. Kilpatrick J.
Swafford, Editors, Center for Education, Division
of Behavioral and Social Sciences and Education.
Washington, DC National Academy Press.
43
Five Strands of Mathematical Proficiency (NRC,
2002)

• Table Activity Evaluate Your Schools Math
  Proficiency
• As a group, review the National Research Council
  Strands of Math Proficiency.
• Which strand do you feel that your school /
  curriculum does the best job of helping students
  to attain proficiency?
• Which strand do you feel that your school /
  curriculum should put the greatest effort to
  figure out how to help students to attain
  proficiency?
• Be prepared to share your results.

• Understanding Comprehending mathematical
  concepts, operations, and relations--knowing what
  mathematical symbols, diagrams, and procedures
  mean.
• Computing Carrying out mathematical procedures,
  such as adding, subtracting, multiplying, and
  dividing numbers flexibly, accurately,
  efficiently, and appropriately.
• Applying Being able to formulate problems
  mathematically and to devise strategies for
  solving them using concepts and procedures
  appropriately.
• Reasoning Using logic to explain and justify a
  solution to a problem or to extend from something
  known to something less known.
• Engaging Seeing mathematics as sensible, useful,
  and doableif you work at itand being willing to
  do the work.

44
Math Computation InterventionsJim
Wrightwww.interventioncentral.org
45
"Arithmetic is being able to count up to twenty
without taking off your shoes." Anonymous
46
Benefits of Automaticity of Arithmetic
Combinations (Gersten, Jordan, Flojo, 2005)

• There is a strong correlation between poor
  retrieval of arithmetic combinations (math
  facts) and global math delays
• Automatic recall of arithmetic combinations frees
  up student cognitive capacity to allow for
  understanding of higher-level problem-solving
• By internalizing numbers as mental constructs,
  students can manipulate those numbers in their
  head, allowing for the intuitive understanding of
  arithmetic properties, such as associative
  property and commutative property

Source Gersten, R., Jordan, N. C., Flojo, J.
R. (2005). Early identification and interventions
for students with mathematics difficulties.
Journal of Learning Disabilities, 38, 293-304.
47
Cover-Copy-Compare Math Computational
Fluency-Building Intervention

• The student is given sheet with correctly
  completed math problems in left column and index
  card. For each problem, the student
• studies the model
• covers the model with index card
• copies the problem from memory
• solves the problem
• uncovers the correctly completed model to check
  answer

Source Skinner, C.H., Turco, T.L., Beatty, K.L.,
Rasavage, C. (1989). Cover, copy, and compare
A method for increasing multiplication
performance. School Psychology Review, 18,
412-420.
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Math Computation Problem Interspersal Technique

• The teacher first identifies the range of
  challenging problem-types (number problems
  appropriately matched to the students current
  instructional level) that are to appear on the
  worksheet.
• Then the teacher creates a series of easy
  problems that the students can complete very
  quickly (e.g., adding or subtracting two 1-digit
  numbers). The teacher next prepares a series of
  student math computation worksheets with easy
  computation problems interspersed at a fixed rate
  among the challenging problems.
• If the student is expected to complete the
  worksheet independently, challenging and easy
  problems should be interspersed at a 11 ratio
  (that is, every challenging problem in the
  worksheet is preceded and/or followed by an
  easy problem).
• If the student is to have the problems read aloud
  and then asked to solve the problems mentally and
  write down only the answer, the items should
  appear on the worksheet at a ratio of 3
  challenging problems for every easy one (that
  is, every 3 challenging problems are preceded
  and/or followed by an easy one).

Source Hawkins, J., Skinner, C. H., Oliver, R.
(2005). The effects of task demands and additive
interspersal ratios on fifth-grade students
mathematics accuracy. School Psychology Review,
34, 543-555..
49
Developing Student Metacognitive AbilitiesJim
Wrightwww.interventioncentral.org
50
Importance of Metacognitive Strategy Use

• Metacognitive processes focus on self-awareness
  of cognitive knowledge that is presumed to be
  necessary for effective problem solving, and they
  direct and regulate cognitive processes and
  strategies during problem solvingThat is,
  successful problem solvers, consciously or
  unconsciously (depending on task demands), use
  self-instruction, self-questioning, and
  self-monitoring to gain access to strategic
  knowledge, guide execution of strategies, and
  regulate use of strategies and problem-solving
  performance. p. 231

Source Montague, M. (1992). The effects of
cognitive and metacognitive strategy instruction
on the mathematical problem solving of middle
school students with learning disabilities.
Journal of Learning Disabilities, 25, 230-248.
51
Elements of Metacognitive Processes

• Self-instruction helps students to identify and
  direct the problem-solving strategies prior to
  execution. Self-questioning promotes internal
  dialogue for systematically analyzing problem
  information and regulating execution of cognitive
  strategies. Self-monitoring promotes appropriate
  use of specific strategies and encourages
  students to monitor general performance.
  Emphasis added. p. 231

Source Montague, M. (1992). The effects of
cognitive and metacognitive strategy instruction
on the mathematical problem solving of middle
school students with learning disabilities.
Journal of Learning Disabilities, 25, 230-248.
52
Combining Cognitive Metacognitive Strategies to
Assist Students With Mathematical Problem Solving

• Solving an advanced math problem independently
  requires the coordination of a number of complex
  skills. The following strategies combine both
  cognitive and metacognitive elements (Montague,
  1992 Montague Dietz, 2009). First, the student
  is taught a 7-step process for attacking a math
  word problem (cognitive strategy). Second, the
  instructor trains the student to use a three-part
  self-coaching routine for each of the seven
  problem-solving steps (metacognitive strategy).

53
Cognitive Portion of Combined Problem Solving
Approach

• In the cognitive part of this multi-strategy
  intervention, the student learns an explicit
  series of steps to analyze and solve a math
  problem. Those steps include
• Reading the problem. The student reads the
  problem carefully, noting and attempting to clear
  up any areas of uncertainly or confusion (e.g.,
  unknown vocabulary terms).
• Paraphrasing the problem. The student restates
  the problem in his or her own words.
• Drawing the problem. The student creates a
  drawing of the problem, creating a visual
  representation of the word problem.
• Creating a plan to solve the problem. The student
  decides on the best way to solve the problem and
  develops a plan to do so.
• Predicting/Estimating the answer. The student
  estimates or predicts what the answer to the
  problem will be. The student may compute a quick
  approximation of the answer, using rounding or
  other shortcuts.
• Computing the answer. The student follows the
  plan developed earlier to compute the answer to
  the problem.
• Checking the answer. The student methodically
  checks the calculations for each step of the
  problem. The student also compares the actual
  answer to the estimated answer calculated in a
  previous step to ensure that there is general
  agreement between the two values.

54
Metacognitive Portion of Combined Problem Solving
Approach

• The metacognitive component of the intervention
  is a three-part routine that follows a sequence
  of Say, Ask, Check. For each of the 7
  problem-solving steps reviewed above
• The student first self-instructs by stating, or
  saying, the purpose of the step (Say).
• The student next self-questions by asking what
  he or she intends to do to complete the step
  (Ask).
• The student concludes the step by
  self-monitoring, or checking, the successful
  completion of the step (Check).

55
Combined Cognitive Metacognitive Elements of
Strategy
56
Combined Cognitive Metacognitive Elements of
Strategy
57
Combined Cognitive Metacognitive Elements of
Strategy
58
Combined Cognitive Metacognitive Elements of
Strategy
59
Combined Cognitive Metacognitive Elements of
Strategy
60
Combined Cognitive Metacognitive Elements of
Strategy
61
Combined Cognitive Metacognitive Elements of
Strategy
62
Applied Problems Pop Quiz

• Q To move their armies, the Romans built over
  50,000 miles of roads. Imagine driving all those
  miles! Now imagine driving those miles in the
  first gasoline-driven car that has only three
  wheels and could reach a top speed of about 10
  miles per hour.
• For safety's sake, let's bring along a spare
  tire. As you drive the 50,000 miles, you rotate
  the spare with the other tires so that all four
  tires get the same amount of wear. Can you figure
  out how many miles of wear each tire accumulates?

Directions As a team, read the following
problem. At your tables, apply the 7-step
problem-solving (cognitive) strategy to complete
the problem. As you complete each step of the
problem, apply the Say-Ask-Check metacognitive
sequence. Try to complete the entire 7 steps
within the time allocated for this exercise.

• 7-Step Problem-SolvingProcess
• Reading the problem.
• Paraphrasing the problem.
• Drawing the problem.
• Creating a plan to solve the problem.
• Predicting/Estimat-ing the answer.
• Computing the answer.
• Checking the answer.

A Since the four wheels of the three-wheeled
car share the journey equally, simply take
three-fourths of the total distance (50,000
miles) and you'll get 37,500 miles for each
tire.
Source The Math Forum _at_ Drexel Critical
Thinking Puzzles/Spare My Brain. Retrieved from
http//mathforum.org/k12/k12puzzles/critical.think
ing/puzz2.html
63
RTI Writing Interventions Jim
Wrightwww.interventioncentral.org
64
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65

• "If all the grammarians in the world were placed
  end to end, it would be a good thing."
• Oscar Wilde

66
Graham, S., Perin, D. (2007). Writing next
Effective strategies to improve writing of
adolescents in middle and high schools A report
to Carnegie Corporation of New York. Washington,
DC Alliance for Excellent Education. Retrieved
from http//www.all4ed.org/files/WritingNext.pdf
67
The Effect of Grammar Instruction as an
Independent Activity

• Grammar instruction in the studies reviewed
  for the Writing Next report involved the
  explicit and systematic teaching of the parts of
  speech and structure of sentences. The
  meta-analysis found an effect for this type of
  instruction for students across the full range of
  ability, but surprisingly, this effect was
  negativeSuch findings raise serious questions
  about some educators enthusiasm for traditional
  grammar instruction as a focus of writing
  instruction for adolescents.Overall, the
  findings on grammar instruction suggest that,
  although teaching grammar is important,
  alternative procedures, such as sentence
  combining, are more effective than traditional
  approaches for improving the quality of students
  writing. p. 21

Source Graham, S., Perin, D. (2007). Writing
next Effective strategies to improve writing of
adolescents in middle and high schools A report
to Carnegie Corporation of New York. Washington,
DC Alliance for Excellent Education.
68

• Elements of effective writing instruction for
  adolescents
• Writing Process (Effect Size 0.82) Students
  are taught a process for planning, revising, and
  editing.
• Summarizing (Effect Size 0.82) Students are
  taught methods to identify key points, main ideas
  from readings to write summaries of source texts.
• Cooperative Learning Activities (Collaborative
  Writing) (Effect Size 0.75) Students are
  placed in pairs or groups with learning
  activities that focus on collaborative use of the
  writing process.
• Goal-Setting (Effect Size 0.70) Students set
  specific product goals for their writing and
  then check their attainment of those
  self-generated goals.

Source Graham, S., Perin, D. (2007). Writing
next Effective strategies to improve writing of
adolescents in middle and high schools A report
to Carnegie Corporation of New York. Washington,
DC Alliance for Excellent Education. Retrieved
from http//www.all4ed.org/files/WritingNext.pdf
69

• Elements of effective writing instruction for
  adolescents
• Writing Processors (Effect Size 0.55) Students
  have access to computers/word processors in the
  writing process.
• Sentence Combining (Effect Size 0.50) Students
  take part in instructional activities that
  require the combination or embedding of simpler
  sentences (e.g., Noun-Verb-Object) to generate
  more advanced, complex sentences.
• Prewriting (Effect Size 0.32) Students learn
  to select, develop, or organize ideas to
  incorporate into their writing by participating
  in structured pre-writing activities.
• Inquiry Activities (Effect Size 0.32) Students
  become actively engaged researchers, collecting
  and analyzing information to guide the ideas and
  content for writing assignments.

Source Graham, S., Perin, D. (2007). Writing
next Effective strategies to improve writing of
adolescents in middle and high schools A report
to Carnegie Corporation of New York. Washington,
DC Alliance for Excellent Education. Retrieved
from http//www.all4ed.org/files/WritingNext.pdf
70

• Elements of effective writing instruction for
  adolescents
• Process Writing (Effect Size 0.32) Writing
  instruction is taught in a workshop format that
  stresses extended writing opportunities,
  writing for authentic audiences, personalized
  instruction, and cycles of writing (Graham
  Perin, 2007 p. 4).
• Use of Writing Models (Effect Size 0.25)
  Students read and discuss models of good writing
  and use them as exemplars for their own writing.
• Writing to Learn Content (Effect Size 0.23)
  The instructor incorporates writing activities as
  a means to have students learn content material.

Source Graham, S., Perin, D. (2007). Writing
next Effective strategies to improve writing of
adolescents in middle and high schools A report
to Carnegie Corporation of New York. Washington,
DC Alliance for Excellent Education. Retrieved
from http//www.all4ed.org/files/WritingNext.pdf
71

• "The difference between the right word and the
  almost right word is the difference between
  lightning and the lightning bug."
• Mark Twain

72

• "Your manuscript is both good and original. But
  the part that is good is not original, and the
  part that is original is not good."
• Samuel Johnson

73
Use Selective Proofreading With Highlighting of
Errors

• To prevent struggling writers from becoming
  overwhelmed by teacher proofreading corrections,
  select only 1 or 2 proofreading areas when
  correcting a writing assignment.
• Create a student writing skills checklist that
  inventories key writing competencies (e.g.,
  grammar/syntax, spelling, vocabulary, etc.).
• For each writing assignment, announce to students
  that you will grade the assignment for overall
  content but will make proofreading corrections on
  only 1-2 areas chosen from the writing skills
  checklist. (Select different proofreading targets
  for each assignment matched to common writing
  weaknesses in your classroom.)

74
Use Selective Proofreading With Highlighting of
Errors Cont.

• To prevent cluttering the students paper with
  potentially discouraging teacher comments and
  editing marks
• underline problems in the student text with a
  highlighter and
• number the highlighted errors sequentially at the
  left margin of the student paper.
• write teacher comments on a separate feedback
  sheet to explain the writing errors. Identify
  each comment with the matching error-number from
  the left margin of the students worksheet.
• TIP Have students use this method when
  proofreading their own text.

75
Selective Proofreading With Highlighting of
Errors
Jimmy Smith
Dec 1, 2006
Mrs. Richman
76

• "A ratio of failures is built into the process
  of writing. The wastebasket has evolved for a
  reason."
• Margaret Atwood

77
Sentence Combining

• Students with poor writing skills often write
  sentences that lack syntactic maturity. Their
  sentences often follow a simple, stereotyped
  format. A promising approach to teach students
  use of diverse sentence structures is through
  sentence combining. In sentence combining,
  students are presented with kernel sentences and
  given explicit instruction in how to weld these
  kernel sentences into more diverse sentence types
  either
• by using connecting words to combine multiple
  sentences into one or
• by isolating key information from an otherwise
  superfluous sentence and embedding that important
  information into the base sentence.

Sources Saddler, B. (2005). Sentence combining
A sentence-level writing intervention. The
Reading Teacher, 58, 468-471. Strong, W. (1986).
Creative approaches to sentence combining.
Urbana, OL ERIC Clearinghouse on Reading and
Communication Skill National Council of
Teachers of English.
78
Formatting Sentence Combining Examples
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Team Activity Use of Sentence Combining as a
Writing Strategy Across Content Areas

• Discuss the sentence-combining strategy discussed
  in this workshop.
• Brainstorm ways that schools can promote the use
  of this strategy across content areas to
  encourage students to write with greater variety
  of sentence structure.

83
Reading Interventions toPromote Fluency
ComprehensionJim Wrightwww.interventioncentral
.org
84
Savvy Teachers Guide Reading Interventions That
Work (Wright, 2000)
85
Big Ideas in Beginning Reading

• Phonemic Awareness The ability to hear and
  manipulate sounds in words.
• Alphabetic Principle The ability to associate
  sounds with letters and use these sounds to form
  words.
• Fluency with Text The effortless, automatic
  ability to read words in connected text.
• Vocabulary The ability to understand (receptive)
  and use (expressive) words to acquire and convey
  meaning.
• Comprehension The complex cognitive process
  involving the intentional interaction between
  reader and text to convey meaning.

Source Big ideas in beginning reading.
University of Oregon. Retrieved September 23,
2007, from http//reading.uoregon.edu/index.php
86

• Building Reading Fluency

87
CBM Student Reading Samples What Difference
Does Fluency Make?

• 3rd Grade 19 Words Per Minute

• 3rd Grade 70 Words Per Minute

• 3rd Grade 98 Words Per Minute

88
NRP Conclusions Regarding Importance of Oral
Reading Fluency

• An extensive review of the literature
  indicates that classroom practices that
  encourage repeated oral reading with feedback
  and guidance leads to meaningful improvements in
  reading expertise for studentsfor good readers
  as well as those who are experiencing
  difficulties.-p. 3-3

89
Interventions forIncreasing Reading Fluency

• Assisted Reading Practice
• Listening Passage Preview (ListeningWhile
  Reading)
• Paired Reading
• Repeated Reading

90

• The student reads aloud in tandem with an
  accomplished reader. At a student signal, the
  helping reader stops reading, while the student
  continues on. When the student commits a reading
  error, the helping reader resumes reading in
  tandem.

Paired Reading
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Secondary-Level Tier 1 Intervention Case
ExamplesJim Wrightwww.interventioncentral.org
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Tier 1 Case Example Patricia Reading
Comprehension
95
Case Example Reading Comprehension

• The Problem
• A student, Patricia, struggled in her social
  studies class, particularly in understanding the
  course readings. Her teacher, Ms. Cardamone,
  decided that the problem was significant enough
  that the student required some individualized
  support.

96
Case Example Reading Comprehension

• The Evidence
• Student Interview. Ms. Cardamone met with
  Patricia to ask her questions about her
  difficulties with social studies content and
  assignments. Patricia said that when she reads
  the course text and other assigned readings, she
  doesnt have difficulty with the vocabulary but
  often realizes after reading half a page that she
  hasnt really understood what she has read.
  Sometimes she has to reread a page several times
  and that can be frustrating.

97
Case Example Reading Comprehension

• The Evidence (Cont.)
• Review of Records. Past teacher report card
  comments suggest that Patricia has had difficulty
  with reading comprehension tasks in earlier
  grades. She had received help in middle school in
  the reading lab, although there was no record of
  what specific interventions were tried in that
  setting.
• Input from Other Teachers. Ms. Cardamone checked
  with other teachers who have Patricia in their
  classes. All expressed concern about Patricias
  reading comprehension skills. The English
  teacher noted that Patricia appears to have
  difficulty pulling the main idea from a passage,
  which limits her ability to extract key
  information from texts and to review that
  information for tests.
•  

98
Case Example Reading Comprehension

• The Intervention
• Ms. Cardamone decided, based on the evidence
  collected, that Patricia would benefit from
  training in identifying the main idea from a
  passage, rather than trying to retain all the
  information presented in the text. She selected
  two simple interventions Question Generation and
  Text Lookback. She arranged to have Patricia meet
  with her during an open period to review these
  two strategies. During that meeting, Ms.
  Cardamone demonstrated how to use these
  strategies effectively with the social studies
  course text and other assigned readings.

99

• Students are taught to boost their comprehension
  of expository passages by (1) locating the main
  idea or key ideas in the passage and (2)
  generating questions based on that information.

QuestionGeneration
http//www.interventioncentral.org/htmdocs/interve
ntions/rdngcompr/qgen.php
100

• Text lookback is a simple strategy that students
  can use to boost their recall of expository prose
  by identifying questions that require information
  from the text and then looking back in the text
  in a methodical manner to locate that
  information.

Text Lookback
http//www.interventioncentral.org/htmdocs/interve
ntions/rdngcompr/txtlkbk.php
101
Case Example Reading Comprehension

• Documentation and Goal-Setting
• Ms Cardamone filled out a Tier 1 intervention
  plan for the student. On the plan, she listed
  interventions to be used, a checkup date (4
  instructional weeks), and data to be used to
  assess student progress.
• Data Ms. Cardamone decided that she would rate
  the students grasp of text content in two ways
• Student self-rating (1-3 scale 1dont
  understand 3 understand well)
• Quiz grades.
• She collected baseline on both and set a goal for
  improvement.

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Case Example Reading Comprehension

• The Outcome
• When the intervention had been in place for 4
  weeks, Ms. Cardamone noted that Patricia appeared
  to have a somewhat better grasp of course content
  and expressed a greater understanding of material
  from the text.
• She shared her intervention ideas with other
  teachers working with Patricia. Because
  Patricias self-ratings of reading comprehension
  and quiz grades met the goals after 4 weeks, Ms.
  Cardamone decided to continue the intervention
  plan with the student without changes.

104
END
105
Building Teacher Capacity to Deliver Tier 1
Interventions An 8-Step Checklist Jim
Wrightwww.interventioncentral.org
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Team Activity Building Tier 1 Capacity

• At your tables
• Consider the eight steps to building Tier 1
  teacher capacity to deliver effective classroom
  interventions.
• Discuss the strengths and challenges that your
  school or district presents in promoting
  classroom teachers appropriate and effective use
  of Tier 1 interventions.
• Be prepared to share your discussion with the
  larger group!

118
RTI An Overview for EducatorsJim
Wrightwww.interventioncentral.org
119
RTI Assumption Struggling Students Are Typical
Until Proven Otherwise

• RTI logic assumes that
• A student who begins to struggle in general
  education is typical, and that
• It is general educations responsibility to find
  the instructional strategies that will unlock the
  students learning potential
• Only when the student shows through
  well-documented interventions that he or she has
  failed to respond to intervention does RTI
  begin to investigate the possibility that the
  student may have a learning disability or other
  special education condition.

120
Five Core Components of RTI Service Delivery

1. Student services are arranged in a multi-tier
   model
2. Data are collected to assess student baseline
   levels and to make decisions about student
   progress
3. Interventions are evidence-based
4. The procedural integrity of interventions is
   measured
5. RTI is implemented and developed at the school-
   and district-level to be scalable and sustainable
   over time

Source Glover, T. A., DiPerna, J. C. (2007).
Service delivery for response to intervention
Core components and directions for future
research. School Psychology Review, 36, 526-540.
121
Target Student
Dual-Discrepancy RTI Model of Learning
Disability (Fuchs 2003)
122
RTI Pyramid of Interventions
123
Tier 1 Core Instruction

• Tier I core instruction
• Is universalavailable to all students.
• Can be delivered within classrooms or throughout
  the school.
• Is an ongoing process of developing strong
  classroom instructional practices to reach the
  largest number of struggling learners.
• All children have access to Tier 1
  instruction/interventions. Teachers have the
  capability to use those strategies without
  requiring outside assistance.
• Tier 1 instruction encompasses
• The schools core curriculum.
• Al published or teacher-made materials used to
  deliver that curriculum.
• Teacher use of whole-group teaching
  management strategies.
• Tier I instruction addresses this question Are
  strong classroom instructional strategies
  sufficient to help the student to achieve
  academic success?

124
Tier I (Classroom) Intervention

• Tier 1 intervention
• Targets red flag students who are not
  successful with core instruction alone.
• Uses evidence-based strategies to address
  student academic or behavioral concerns.
• Must be feasible to implement given the resources
  available in the classroom.
• Tier I intervention addresses the question Does
  the student make adequate progress when the
  instructor uses specific academic or behavioral
  strategies matched to the presenting concern?

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The Key RTI Role of Classroom Teachers as Tier 1
Interventionists