RTI:%20Reading%20and%20Writing%20Interventions%20for%20Difficult-to-Teach%20Students%20Jim%20Wright%20www.interventioncentral.org

1
RTI Reading and Writing Interventions for
Difficult-to-Teach StudentsJim
Wrightwww.interventioncentral.org
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RTI Reading Writing Interventions Workshop
Agenda
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School Instructional Time The Irreplaceable
Resource

• In the average school system, there are 330
  minutes in the instructional day, 1,650 minutes
  in the instructional week, and 56,700 minutes in
  the instructional year. Except in unusual
  circumstances, these are the only minutes we have
  to provide effective services for students. The
  number of years we have to apply these minutes is
  fixed. Therefore, each minute counts and schools
  cannot afford to support inefficient models of
  service delivery. p. 177

Source Batsche, G. M., Castillo, J. M., Dixon,
D. N., Forde, S. (2008). Best practices in
problem analysis. In A. Thomas J. Grimes
(Eds.), Best practices in school psychology V
(pp. 177-193).
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Five Core Components of RTI Service Delivery

1. Student services are arranged in a multi-tier
   model
2. Data are collected to assess student baseline
   levels and to make decisions about student
   progress
3. Interventions are evidence-based
4. The procedural integrity of interventions is
   measured
5. RTI is implemented and developed at the school-
   and district-level to be scalable and sustainable
   over time

Source Glover, T. A., DiPerna, J. C. (2007).
Service delivery for response to intervention
Core components and directions for future
research. School Psychology Review, 36, 526-540.
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RTI Pyramid of Interventions
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Tier 1 Core Instruction

• Tier I core instruction
• Is universalavailable to all students.
• Can be delivered within classrooms or throughout
  the school.
• Is an ongoing process of developing strong
  classroom instructional practices to reach the
  largest number of struggling learners.
• All children have access to Tier 1
  instruction/interventions. Teachers have the
  capability to use those strategies without
  requiring outside assistance.
• Tier 1 instruction encompasses
• The schools core curriculum.
• Al published or teacher-made materials used to
  deliver that curriculum.
• Teacher use of whole-group teaching
  management strategies.
• Tier I instruction addresses this question Are
  strong classroom instructional strategies
  sufficient to help the student to achieve
  academic success?

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Tier I (Classroom) Intervention

• Tier 1 intervention
• Targets red flag students who are not
  successful with core instruction alone.
• Uses evidence-based strategies to address
  student academic or behavioral concerns.
• Must be feasible to implement given the resources
  available in the classroom.
• Tier I intervention addresses the question Does
  the student make adequate progress when the
  instructor uses specific academic or behavioral
  strategies matched to the presenting concern?

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The Key RTI Role of Classroom Teachers as Tier 1
Interventionists 6 Steps

1. The teacher defines the student academic or
   behavioral problem clearly.
2. The teacher decides on the best explanation for
   why the problem is occurring.
3. The teacher selects evidence-based
   interventions.
4. The teacher documents the students Tier 1
   intervention plan.
5. The teacher monitors the students response
   (progress) to the intervention plan.
6. The teacher knows what the next steps are when a
   student fails to make adequate progress with Tier
   1 interventions alone.

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RTI Intervention Key Concepts
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Essential Elements of Any Academic or Behavioral
Intervention (Treatment) Strategy

• Method of delivery (Who or what delivers the
  treatment?)Examples include teachers,
  paraprofessionals, parents, volunteers,
  computers.
• Treatment component (What makes the intervention
  effective?)Examples include activation of prior
  knowledge to help the student to make meaningful
  connections between known and new material
  guide practice (e.g., Paired Reading) to increase
  reading fluency periodic review of material to
  aid student retention.

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Core Instruction, Interventions, Accommodations
Modifications Sorting Them Out

• Core Instruction. Those instructional strategies
  that are used routinely with all students in a
  general-education setting are considered core
  instruction. High-quality instruction is
  essential and forms the foundation of RTI
  academic support. NOTE While it is important to
  verify that good core instructional practices are
  in place for a struggling student, those routine
  practices do not count as individual student
  interventions.

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Core Instruction, Interventions, Accommodations
Modifications Sorting Them Out

• Intervention. An academic intervention is a
  strategy used to teach a new skill, build fluency
  in a skill, or encourage a child to apply an
  existing skill to new situations or settings. An
  intervention can be thought of as a set of
  actions that, when taken, have demonstrated
  ability to change a fixed educational trajectory
  (Methe Riley-Tillman, 2008 p. 37).

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Core Instruction, Interventions, Accommodations
Modifications Sorting Them Out

• Accommodation. An accommodation is intended to
  help the student to fully access and participate
  in the general-education curriculum without
  changing the instructional content and without
  reducing the students rate of learning (Skinner,
  Pappas Davis, 2005). An accommodation is
  intended to remove barriers to learning while
  still expecting that students will master the
  same instructional content as their typical
  peers.
• Accommodation example 1 Students are allowed to
  supplement silent reading of a novel by listening
  to the book on tape.
• Accommodation example 2 For unmotivated
  students, the instructor breaks larger
  assignments into smaller chunks and providing
  students with performance feedback and praise for
  each completed chunk of assigned work (Skinner,
  Pappas Davis, 2005).

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Core Instruction, Interventions, Accommodations
Modifications Sorting Them Out

• Modification. A modification changes the
  expectations of what a student is expected to
  know or dotypically by lowering the academic
  standards against which the student is to be
  evaluated. Examples of modifications
• Giving a student five math computation problems
  for practice instead of the 20 problems assigned
  to the rest of the class
• Letting the student consult course notes during a
  test when peers are not permitted to do so
• Allowing a student to select a much easier book
  for a book report than would be allowed to his or
  her classmates.

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Academic Interventions Critical Components
Checklist
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Academic Interventions Critical Components
Checklist
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Academic Interventions Critical Components
Checklist

• This checklist summarizes the essential
  components of academic interventions. When
  preparing a students Tier 1, 2, or 3 academic
  intervention plan, use this document as a
  pre-flight checklist to ensure that the
  academic intervention is of high quality, is
  sufficiently strong to address the identified
  student problem, is fully understood and
  supported by the teacher, and can be implemented
  with integrity. NOTE While the checklist refers
  to the teacher as the interventionist, it can
  also be used as a guide to ensure the quality of
  interventions implemented by non-instructional
  personnel, adult volunteers, parents, and peer
  (student) tutors.

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Allocating Sufficient Contact Time Assuring Appropriate Student-Teacher Ratio Allocating Sufficient Contact Time Assuring Appropriate Student-Teacher Ratio Allocating Sufficient Contact Time Assuring Appropriate Student-Teacher Ratio
The cumulative time set aside for an intervention and the amount of direct teacher contact are two factors that help to determine that interventions strength (Yeaton Sechrest, 1981). The cumulative time set aside for an intervention and the amount of direct teacher contact are two factors that help to determine that interventions strength (Yeaton Sechrest, 1981). The cumulative time set aside for an intervention and the amount of direct teacher contact are two factors that help to determine that interventions strength (Yeaton Sechrest, 1981).
Critical Item? Intervention Element Notes
? Time Allocated. The time set aside for the intervention is appropriate for the type and level of student problem (Burns Gibbons, 2008 Kratochwill, Clements Kalymon, 2007). When evaluating whether the amount of time allocated is adequate, consider Length of each intervention session. Frequency of sessions (e.g.., daily, 3 times per week) Duration of intervention period (e.g., 6 instructional weeks)
? Student-Teacher Ratio. The student receives sufficient contact from the teacher or other person delivering the intervention to make that intervention effective. NOTE Generally, supplemental intervention groups should be limited to 6-7 students (Burns Gibbons, 2008).
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Matching the Intervention to the Student Problem Matching the Intervention to the Student Problem Matching the Intervention to the Student Problem
Academic interventions are not selected at random. First, the student academic problem(s) is defined clearly and in detail. Then, the likely explanations for the academic problem(s) are identified to understand which intervention(s) are likely to helpand which should be avoided. Academic interventions are not selected at random. First, the student academic problem(s) is defined clearly and in detail. Then, the likely explanations for the academic problem(s) are identified to understand which intervention(s) are likely to helpand which should be avoided. Academic interventions are not selected at random. First, the student academic problem(s) is defined clearly and in detail. Then, the likely explanations for the academic problem(s) are identified to understand which intervention(s) are likely to helpand which should be avoided.
Critical Item? Intervention Element Notes
? Problem Definition. The student academic problem(s) to be addressed in the intervention are defined in clear, specific, measureable terms (Bergan, 1995 Witt, VanDerHeyden Gilbertson, 2004). The full problem definition describes Conditions. Describe the environmental conditions or task demands in place when the academic problem is observed. Problem Description. Describe the actual observable academic behavior in which the student is engaged. Include rate, accuracy, or other quantitative information of student performance. Typical or Expected Level of Performance. Provide a typical or expected performance criterion for this skill or behavior. Typical or expected academic performance can be calculated using a variety of sources,
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Matching the Intervention to the Student Problem (Cont.) Matching the Intervention to the Student Problem (Cont.) Matching the Intervention to the Student Problem (Cont.)
Critical Item? Intervention Element Notes
? Appropriate Target. Selected intervention(s) are appropriate for the identified student problem(s) (Burns, VanDerHeyden Boice, 2008). TIP Use the Instructional Hierarchy (Haring et al., 1978) to select academic interventions according to the four stages of learning Acquisition. The student has begun to learn how to complete the target skill correctly but is not yet accurate in the skill. Interventions should improve accuracy. Fluency. The student is able to complete the target skill accurately but works slowly. Interventions should increase the students speed of responding (fluency) as well as to maintain accuracy. Generalization. The student may have acquired the target skill but does not typically use it in the full range of appropriate situations or settings. Or the student may confuse the target skill with similar skills. Interventions should get the student to use the skill in the widest possible range of settings and situations, or to accurately discriminate between the target skill and similar skills. Adaptation. The student is not yet able to modify or adapt an existing skill to fit novel task-demands or situations. Interventions should help the student to identify key concepts or elements from previously learned skills that can be adapted to the new demands or situations.
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Matching the Intervention to the Student Problem (Cont.) Matching the Intervention to the Student Problem (Cont.) Matching the Intervention to the Student Problem (Cont.)
Critical Item? Intervention Element Notes
? Cant Do/Wont Do Check. The teacher has determined whether the student problem is primarily a skill or knowledge deficit (cant do) or whether student motivation plays a main or supporting role in academic underperformance (wont do). If motivation appears to be a significant factor contributing to the problem, the intervention plan includes strategies to engage the student (e.g., high interest learning activities rewards/incentives increased student choice in academic assignments, etc.) (Skinner, Pappas Davis, 2005 Witt, VanDerHeyden Gilbertson, 2004).
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Activity Matching the Intervention to the
Student Problem

• Consider these critical aspects of academic
  intervention
• Clear and specific problem-identification
  statement (Conditions, Problem Description,
  Typical/Expected Level of Performance).
• Appropriate intervention target (e.g., selected
  intervention is appropriately matched to
  Acquisition, Fluency, Generalization, or
  Adaptation phase of Instructional Hierarchy).
• Cant Do/Wont Do Check (Clarification of whether
  motivation plays a significant role in student
  academic underperformance).
• What questions do you have about applying any of
  these concepts when planning classroom
  interventions?

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Incorporating Effective Instructional Elements Incorporating Effective Instructional Elements Incorporating Effective Instructional Elements
These effective building blocks of instruction are well-known and well-supported by the research. They should be considered when selecting or creating any academic intervention. These effective building blocks of instruction are well-known and well-supported by the research. They should be considered when selecting or creating any academic intervention. These effective building blocks of instruction are well-known and well-supported by the research. They should be considered when selecting or creating any academic intervention.
Critical Item? Intervention Element Notes
? Explicit Instruction. Student skills have been broken down into manageable and deliberately sequenced steps and the teacher provided overt strategies for students to learn and practice new skills (Burns, VanDerHeyden Boice, 2008, p.1153).
? Appropriate Level of Challenge. The student experienced sufficient success in the academic task(s) to shape learning in the desired direction as well as to maintain student motivation (Burns, VanDerHeyden Boice, 2008).
? Active Engagement. The intervention ensures that the student is engaged in active accurate responding (Skinner, Pappas Davis, 2005).at a rate frequent enough to capture student attention and to optimize effective learning.
? Performance Feedback. The student receives prompt performance feedback about the work completed (Burns, VanDerHeyden Boice, 2008).
? Maintenance of Academic Standards. If the intervention includes any accommodations to better support the struggling learner (e.g., preferential seating, breaking a longer assignment into smaller chunks), those accommodations do not substantially lower the academic standards against which the student is to be evaluated and are not likely to reduce the students rate of learning (Skinner, Pappas Davis, 2005).
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Activity Incorporating Effective Instructional
Elements

• Think about the effective instructional elements
  reviewed in this workshop.
• How can teachers ensure that all effective
  instructional elements are included in academic
  interventions?

Incorporating Effective Instructional Elements Incorporating Effective Instructional Elements Incorporating Effective Instructional Elements
Critical Item? Intervention Element Notes
? Explicit Instruction.
? Appropriate Level of Challenge.
? Active Engagement..
? Performance Feedback.
? Maintenance of Academic Standards.
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Verifying Teacher Understanding Providing Teacher Support Verifying Teacher Understanding Providing Teacher Support Verifying Teacher Understanding Providing Teacher Support
The teacher is an active agent in the intervention, with primary responsibility for putting it into practice in a busy classroom. It is important, then, that the teacher fully understands how to do the intervention, believes that he or she can do it, and knows whom to seek out if there are problems with the intervention. The teacher is an active agent in the intervention, with primary responsibility for putting it into practice in a busy classroom. It is important, then, that the teacher fully understands how to do the intervention, believes that he or she can do it, and knows whom to seek out if there are problems with the intervention. The teacher is an active agent in the intervention, with primary responsibility for putting it into practice in a busy classroom. It is important, then, that the teacher fully understands how to do the intervention, believes that he or she can do it, and knows whom to seek out if there are problems with the intervention.
Critical Item? Intervention Element Notes
? Teacher Responsibility. The teacher understands his or her responsibility to implement the academic intervention(s) with integrity.
? Teacher Acceptability. The teacher states that he or she finds the academic intervention feasible and acceptable for the identified student problem.
? Step-by-Step Intervention Script. The essential steps of the intervention are written as an intervention script--a series of clearly described stepsto ensure teacher understanding and make implementation easier (Hawkins, Morrison, Musti-Rao Hawkins, 2008).
? Intervention Training. If the teacher requires training to carry out the intervention, that training has been arranged.
? Intervention Elements Negotiable vs. Non-Negotiable. The teacher knows all of the steps of the intervention. Additionally, the teacher knows which of the intervention steps are non-negotiable (they must be completed exactly as designed) and which are negotiable (the teacher has some latitude in how to carry out those steps) (Hawkins, Morrison, Musti-Rao Hawkins, 2008).
? Assistance With the Intervention. If the intervention cannot be implemented as designed for any reason (e.g., student absence, lack of materials, etc.), the teacher knows how to get assistance quickly to either fix the problem(s) to the current intervention or to change the intervention.
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Activity Verifying Teacher Understanding
Providing Teacher Support

• In your teams
• Review the checklist for verifying that teachers
  understand all elements of the intervention and
  actively support its use.
• How will your school ensure that teachers will
  understand and support academic interventions
  designed to be implemented in the classroom?

Verifying Teacher Understanding Providing Teacher Support
Critical Item? Intervention Element
? Teacher Responsibility
? Teacher Acceptability.
? Step-by-Step Intervention Script.
? Intervention Training.
? Intervention Elements Negotiable vs. Non-Negotiable
? Assistance With the Intervention
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Documenting the Intervention Collecting Data Documenting the Intervention Collecting Data Documenting the Intervention Collecting Data
Interventions only have meaning if they are done within a larger data-based context. For example, interventions that lack baseline data, goal(s) for improvement, and a progress-monitoring plan are fatally flawed (Witt, VanDerHeyden Gilbertson, 2004). Interventions only have meaning if they are done within a larger data-based context. For example, interventions that lack baseline data, goal(s) for improvement, and a progress-monitoring plan are fatally flawed (Witt, VanDerHeyden Gilbertson, 2004). Interventions only have meaning if they are done within a larger data-based context. For example, interventions that lack baseline data, goal(s) for improvement, and a progress-monitoring plan are fatally flawed (Witt, VanDerHeyden Gilbertson, 2004).
Critical Item? Intervention Element Notes
? Intervention Documentation. The teacher understands and can manage all documentation required for this intervention (e.g., maintaining a log of intervention sessions, etc.).
? Checkup Date. Before the intervention begins, a future checkup date is selected to review the intervention to determine if it is successful. Time elapsing between the start of the intervention and the checkup date should be short enough to allow a timely review of the intervention but long enough to give the school sufficient time to judge with confidence whether the intervention worked.
? Baseline. Before the intervention begins, the teacher has collected information about the students baseline level of performance in the identified area(s) of academic concern (Witt, VanDerHeyden Gilbertson, 2004).
? Goal. Before the intervention begins, the teacher has set a specific goal for predicted student improvement to use as a minimum standard for success (Witt, VanDerHeyden Gilbertson, 2004). The goal is the expected student outcome by the checkup date if the intervention is successful.
? Progress-Monitoring. During the intervention, the teacher collects progress-monitoring data of sufficient quality and at a sufficient frequency to determine at the checkup date whether that intervention is successful (Witt, VanDerHeyden Gilbertson, 2004).
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Activity Documenting the Intervention
Collecting Data

• In your teams
• Consider the elements of intervention
  documentation, data collection, and data
  interpretation discussed here.
• What steps can your school take to make sure
  that data have a central focus when
  interventionsare planned and implemented?

Documenting the Intervention Collecting Data Documenting the Intervention Collecting Data Documenting the Intervention Collecting Data
Critical Item? Intervention Element Notes
? Intervention Documentation.
? Checkup Date.
? Baseline.
? Goal.
? Progress-Monitoring.
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References

• Bergan, J. R. (1995). Evolution of a
  problem-solving model of consultation. Journal of
  Educational and Psychological Consultation, 6(2),
  111-123.
• Burns, M. K., Gibbons, K. A. (2008).
  Implementing response-to-intervention in
  elementary and secondary schools. Routledge New
  York.
• Burns, M. K., VanDerHeyden, A. M., Boice, C. H.
  (2008). Best practices in intensive academic
  interventions. In A. Thomas J. Grimes (Eds.),
  Best practices in school psychology V
  (pp.1151-1162). Bethesda, MD National
  Association of School Psychologists.
• Haring, N.G., Lovitt, T.C., Eaton, M.D.,
  Hansen, C.L. (1978). The fourth R Research in
  the classroom. Columbus, OH Charles E. Merrill
  Publishing Co.
• Hawkins, R. O., Morrison, J. Q., Musti-Rao, S.,
  Hawkins, J. A. (2008). Treatment integrity for
  academic interventions in real- world settings.
  School Psychology Forum, 2(3), 1-15.
• Kratochwill, T. R., Clements, M. A., Kalymon,
  K. M. (2007). Response to intervention
  Conceptual and methodological issues in
  implementation. In Jimerson, S. R., Burns, M. K.,
  VanDerHeyden, A. M. (Eds.), Handbook of
  response to intervention The science and
  practice of assessment and intervention. New
  York Springer.
• Skinner, C. H., Pappas, D. N., Davis, K. A.
  (2005). Enhancing academic engagement Providing
  opportunities for responding and influencing
  students to choose to respond. Psychology in the
  Schools, 42, 389-403.
• Witt, J. C., VanDerHeyden, A. M., Gilbertson,
  D. (2004). Troubleshooting behavioral
  interventions. A systematic process for finding
  and eliminating problems. School Psychology
  Review, 33, 363-383. 
• Yeaton, W. M. Sechrest, L. (1981). Critical
  dimensions in the choice and maintenance of
  successful treatments Strength, integrity, and
  effectiveness. Journal of Consulting and Clinical
  Psychology, 49, 156-167.

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Reading Interventions toPromote Fluency
ComprehensionJim Wrightwww.interventioncentral
.org
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Savvy Teachers Guide Reading Interventions That
Work (Wright, 2000)
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Big Ideas in Beginning Reading

• Phonemic Awareness The ability to hear and
  manipulate sounds in words.
• Alphabetic Principle The ability to associate
  sounds with letters and use these sounds to form
  words.
• Fluency with Text The effortless, automatic
  ability to read words in connected text.
• Vocabulary The ability to understand (receptive)
  and use (expressive) words to acquire and convey
  meaning.
• Comprehension The complex cognitive process
  involving the intentional interaction between
  reader and text to convey meaning.

Source Big ideas in beginning reading.
University of Oregon. Retrieved September 23,
2007, from http//reading.uoregon.edu/index.php
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• Building Reading Fluency

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NRP Conclusions Regarding Importance of Oral
Reading Fluency

• An extensive review of the literature
  indicates that classroom practices that
  encourage repeated oral reading with feedback
  and guidance leads to meaningful improvements in
  reading expertise for studentsfor good readers
  as well as those who are experiencing
  difficulties.-p. 3-3

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Interventions forIncreasing Reading Fluency

• Assisted Reading Practice
• Listening Passage Preview (ListeningWhile
  Reading)
• Paired Reading
• Repeated Reading

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• The student reads aloud in tandem with an
  accomplished reader. At a student signal, the
  helping reader stops reading, while the student
  continues on. When the student commits a reading
  error, the helping reader resumes reading in
  tandem.

Paired Reading
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• Building Reading Comprehension

39

• Students periodically check their understanding
  of sentences, paragraphs, and pages of text as
  they read. When students encounter problems with
  vocabulary or comprehension, they use a checklist
  to apply simple strategies to solve those reading
  difficulties.

Click or Clunk Self-Check
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Click or Clunk Check Sheet
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Click or Clunk? Example
The combination of lack of practice, deficient
decoding skills, and difficult materials results
in unrewarding early reading experiences that
lead to less involvement in reading related
activities. Lack of exposure and practice on the
part of the less skilled readers delays the
development of automaticity and speed at the
word-metacognition level. Slow, capacity-draining
word-recognition processes require cognitive
resources that should be allocated to
higher-level process of text integration and
comprehension. - Stanovich, K., (1986)
The combination of lack of practice, deficient
decoding skills, and difficult materials results
in unrewarding early reading experiences that
lead to less involvement in reading related
activities. Lack of exposure and practice on the
part of the less skilled readers delays the
development of automaticity and speed at the
word-metacognition level. Slow, capacity-draining
word-recognition processes require cognitive
resources that should be allocated to
higher-level process of text integration and
comprehension. - Stanovich, K., (1986)
The combination of lack of practice, deficient
decoding skills, and difficult materials results
in unrewarding early reading experiences that
lead to less involvement in reading related
activities. Lack of exposure and practice on the
part of the less skilled readers delays the
development of automaticity and speed at the
word-metacognition level. Slow, capacity-draining
word-recognition processes require cognitive
resources that should be allocated to
higher-level process of text integration and
comprehension. - Stanovich, K., (1986)
The combination of lack of practice, deficient
decoding skills, and difficult materials results
in unrewarding early reading experiences that
lead to less involvement in reading related
activities. Lack of exposure and practice on the
part of the less skilled readers delays the
development of automaticity and speed at the
word-metacognition level. Slow, capacity-draining
word-recognition processes require cognitive
resources that should be allocated to
higher-level process of text integration and
comprehension. - Stanovich, K., (1986)
The combination of lack of practice, deficient
decoding skills, and difficult materials results
in unrewarding early reading experiences that
lead to less involvement in reading related
activities. Lack of exposure and practice on the
part of the less skilled readers delays the
development of automaticity and speed at the
word-metacognition level. Slow, capacity-draining
word-recognition processes require cognitive
resources that should be allocated to
higher-level process of text integration and
comprehension. - Stanovich, K., (1986)
The combination of lack of practice, deficient
decoding skills, and difficult materials results
in unrewarding early reading experiences that
lead to less involvement in reading related
activities. Lack of exposure and practice on the
part of the less skilled readers delays the
development of automaticity and speed at the
word-metacognition level. Slow, capacity-draining
word-recognition processes require cognitive
resources that should be allocated to
higher-level process of text integration and
comprehension. - Stanovich, K., (1986)
42
Tier 1 (Classroom) Literacy Interventions for
Middle High SchoolsJim Wrightwww.intervention
central.org
43
Risk for reading failure always involves the
interaction of a particular set of child
characteristics with specific characteristics of
the instructional environment. Risk status is not
entirely inherent in the child, but always
involves a mismatch between child
characteristics and the instruction that is
provided. (Foorman Torgesen, 2001 p. 206).


Source Foorman, B. R., Torgesen, J. (2001).
Critical elements of classroom and small-group
instruction promote reading success in all
children. Learning Disabilities Research
Practice, 16, 203-212.
44
Fifteen Elements of Effective Adolescent
Literacy Programs

1. Extended time for literacy across classes
2. Professional development
3. Ongoing summative assessment of students and
   programs
4. Teacher teams (interdisciplinary with a student
   problem-solving focus)
5. Leadership
6. Comprehensive and coordinated literacy program
   (interdisciplinary, interdepartmental)

1. Direct, explicit comprehension instruction
2. Effective instructional principles embedded in
   content
3. Motivation and self-directed learning
4. Text-based collaborative learning
5. Formative student assessment
6. Strategic tutoring
7. Diverse texts
8. Intensive writing
9. Technology component

Source Biancarosa, C., Snow, C. E. (2006).
Reading nextA vision for action and research in
middle and high school literacy A report to
Carnegie Corporation of New York (2nd
ed.).Washington, DC Alliance for Excellent
Education. Retrieved from http//www.all4ed.org/fi
les/ReadingNext.pdf
45
Promoting Literacy in Middle High School
Classrooms Three Elements

• Explicit vocabulary instruction
• Reading comprehension
• Extended discussion

Source Kamil, M. L., Borman, G. D., Dole, J.,
Kral, C. C., Salinger, T., Torgesen, J. (2008).
Improving adolescent literacy Effective
classroom and intervention practices A practice
guide (NCEE 2008-4027). Washington, DC National
Center for Education Evaluation and Regional
Assistance, Institute of Education Sciences, U.S.
Department of Education. Retrieved from
http//ies.ed.gov/ncee/wwc.
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RTI Secondary LiteracyExplicit Vocabulary
Instruction
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Vocabulary Why This Instructional Goal is
Important

• As vocabulary terms become more specialized in
  content area courses, students are less able to
  derive the meaning of unfamiliar words from
  context alone.
• Students must instead learn vocabulary through
  more direct means, including having opportunities
  to explicitly memorize words and their
  definitions.
• Students may require 12 to 17 meaningful
  exposures to a word to learn it.

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Provide Dictionary Training

• The student is trained to use an Internet lookup
  strategy to better understand dictionary or
  glossary definitions of key vocabulary items.
• The student first looks up the word and its
  meaning(s) in the dictionary/glossary.
• If necessary, the student isolates the specific
  word meaning that appears to be the appropriate
  match for the term as it appears in course texts
  and discussion.
• The student goes to an Internet search engine
  (e.g., Google) and locates at least five text
  samples in which the term is used in context and
  appears to match the selected dictionary
  definition.

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Enhance Vocabulary Instruction Through Use of
Graphic Organizers or Displays A Sampling

• Teachers can use graphic displays to structure
  their vocabulary discussions and activities
  (Boardman et al., 2008 Fisher, 2007 Texas
  Reading Initiative, 2002).

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4-Square Graphic Display

• The student divides a page into four quadrants.
  In the upper left section, the student writes the
  target word. In the lower left section, the
  student writes the word definition. In the upper
  right section, the student generates a list of
  examples that illustrate the term, and in the
  lower right section, the student writes
  non-examples (e.g., terms that are the opposite
  of the target vocabulary word).

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Semantic Word Definition Map

• The graphic display contains sections in which
  the student writes the word, its definition
  (what is this?), additional details that extend
  its meaning (What is it like?), as well as a
  listing of examples and non-examples (e.g.,
  terms that are the opposite of the target
  vocabulary word).

53
Word Definition Map Example
54
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55
Semantic Feature Analysis

• A target vocabulary term is selected for
  analysis in this grid-like graphic display.
  Possible features or properties of the term
  appear along the top margin, while examples of
  the term are listed ion the left margin. The
  student considers the vocabulary term and its
  definition. Then the student evaluates each
  example of the term to determine whether it does
  or does not match each possible term property or
  element.

56
Semantic Feature Analysis Example

• VOCABULARY TERM TRANSPORTATION

57
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58
Comparison/Contrast (Venn) Diagram

• Two terms are listed and defined. For each term,
  the student brainstorms qualities or properties
  or examples that illustrate the terms meaning.
  Then the student groups those qualities,
  properties, and examples into 3 sections
• items unique to Term 1
• items unique to Term 2
• items shared by both terms

59
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60
Promote Wide Reading

• Students read widely in the content area, using
  texts that supplement and extend information
  supplied by the textbook. Wide reading results
  in substantial increases in student vocabulary
  over time due to incidental learning. To
  strengthen the positive impact of wide reading on
  vocabulary development, have student texts
  available that vary in difficulty and that are of
  high interest. Discuss readings in class.
  Experiment with ways to document student
  independent reading and integrate that wide
  reading into an effort grade for the course. If
  needed, build time into the students school
  schedule for supervised wide reading time.

61
Hold Read-Alouds

• Select texts that supplement the course textbook
  and that illustrate central concepts and contain
  important vocabulary covered in the course. Read
  those texts aloud for 3 to 5 minutes per class
  session--while students follow along silently.
  Read-alouds provide students with additional
  exposure to vocabulary items in context. They can
  also lower the threshold of difficulty Students
  may be more likely to attempt to read an assigned
  text independently if they have already gotten a
  start in the text by listening to a more advanced
  reader read the first few pages aloud.
  Read-alouds can support other vocabulary-building
  activities such as guided discussion, vocabulary
  review, and wide reading.

62
Provide Regular In-Class Instruction and Review
of Vocabulary Terms, Definitions

• Present important new vocabulary terms in class,
  along with student-friendly definitions. Provide
  example sentences to illustrate the use of the
  term. Assign students to write example sentences
  employing new vocabulary to illustrate their
  mastery of the terms.

63
Generate Possible Sentences

• The teacher selects 6 to 8 challenging new
  vocabulary terms and 4 to 6 easier, more familiar
  vocabulary items relevant to the lesson.
  Introduce the vocabulary terms to the class. Have
  students write sentences that contain at least
  two words from the posted vocabulary list. Then
  write examples of student sentences on the board
  until all words from the list have been used.
  After the assigned reading, review the possible
  sentences that were previously generated.
  Evaluate as a group whether, based on the
  passage, the sentence is possible (true) in its
  current form. If needed, have the group recommend
  how to change the sentence to make it possible.

64
RTI Secondary LiteracyExtended Discussion
65
Extended Discussions Why This Instructional Goal
is Important

• Extended, guided group discussion is a powerful
  means to help students to learn vocabulary and
  advanced concepts. Discussion can also model for
  students various thinking processes and
  cognitive strategies (Kamil et al. 2008, p. 22).
  To be effective, guided discussion should go
  beyond students answering a series of factual
  questions posed by the teacher Quality
  discussions are typically open-ended and
  exploratory in nature, allowing for multiple
  points of view (Kamil et al., 2008).
• When group discussion is used regularly and
  well in instruction, students show increased
  growth in literacy skills. Content-area teachers
  can use it to demonstrate the habits of mind
  and patterns of thinking of experts in various
  their discipline e.g., historians,
  mathematicians, chemists, engineers, literacy
  critics, etc.

66
Use a Standard Protocol to Structure Extended
Discussions

• Good extended classwide discussions elicit a
  wide range of student opinions, subject
  individual viewpoints to critical scrutiny in a
  supportive manner, put forth alternative views,
  and bring closure by summarizing the main points
  of the discussion. Teachers can use a simple
  structure to effectively and reliably organize
  their discussions

67
Standard Protocol Discussion Format

1. Pose questions to the class that require students
   to explain their positions and their reasoning .
2. When needed, think aloud as the discussion
   leader to model good reasoning practices (e.g.,
   taking a clear stand on a topic).
3. Supportively challenge student views by offering
   possible counter arguments.
4. Single out and mention examples of effective
   student reasoning.
5. Avoid being overly directive the purpose of
   extended discussions is to more fully investigate
   and think about complex topics.
6. Sum up the general ground covered in the
   discussion and highlight the main ideas covered.

68
RTI Secondary LiteracyReading Comprehension
69
Reading Comprehension Why This Instructional
Goal is Important

• Students require strong reading comprehension
  skills to succeed in challenging content-area
  classes.At present, there is no clear evidence
  that any one reading comprehension instructional
  technique is clearly superior to others. In fact,
  it appears that students benefit from being
  taught any self-directed practice that prompts
  them to engage more actively in understanding the
  meaning of text (Kamil et al., 2008).

70
Assist Students in Setting Content Goals for
Reading

• Students are more likely to be motivated to
  read--and to read more closelyif they have
  specific content-related reading goals in mind.
  At the start of a reading assignment, for
  example, the instructor has students state what
  questions they might seek to answer or what
  topics they would like to learn more about in
  their reading. The student or teacher writes down
  these questions. After students have completed
  the assignee reading, they review their original
  questions and share what they have learned (e.g.,
  through discussion in large group or cooperative
  learning group, or even as a written assignment).

71
Teach Students to Monitor Their Own Comprehension
and Apply Fix-Up Skills

• Teachers can teach students specific strategies
  to monitor their understanding of text and
  independently use fix-up skills as needed.
  Examples of student monitoring and repair skills
  for reading comprehension include encouraging
  them to
• Stop after every paragraph to summarize its main
  idea
• Reread the sentence or paragraph again if
  necessary
• Generate and write down questions that arise
  during reading
• Restate challenging or confusing ideas or
  concepts from the text in the students own words

72
Collect a Bank of Intervention Scripts to Teach
Specific Comprehension Strategies

• Teachers can collect intervention scripts to
  address different comprehension issues that arise
  in their classrooms.

73
Activity Tier 1 Interventions
74
Tier I Intervention Menu Activity

• Consider the intervention resources from your
  workshop packet and available on the conference
  webpage.
• Draft a school plan for creating (or growing) an
  academic intervention menu for classroom
  teachers
• Who will develop the intervention menu?
• Where will your school find intervention ideas?
• How will the completed intervention menu be
  shared with teachers?
• How will you keep the menu updated with new
  intervention ideas?

75
RTI Writing Interventions Jim
Wrightwww.interventioncentral.org
76
(No Transcript)
77
Defining Student Writing Problems
78

• "If all the grammarians in the world were placed
  end to end, it would be a good thing."
• Oscar Wilde

79

• Domains of writing to be assessed (Robinson
  Howell, 2008)
• Fluency/Text Generation Facility in getting text
  onto paper or typed into the computer. (NOTE
  This element can be significantly influenced by
  student motivation.)
• Syntactic Maturity This skill includes the
• Ability to discern when a word string meets
  criteria as a complete sentence
• Ability to write compositions with a diverse
  range of sentence structures
• Semantic Maturity Writers use of vocabulary of
  range and sophistication

Source Robinson, L. K., Howell, K. W. (2008).
Best practices in curriculum-based evaluation
written expression. In A. Thomas J. Grimes
(Eds.), Best practices in school psychology V
(pp. 439-452). Bethesda, MD National Association
of School Psychologists.
80
Domains of writing to be assessed (Robinson
Howell, 2008)

• 5-Step Writing Process (Items in bold are
  iterative)
• Planning. The student carries out necessary
  pre-writing planning activities, including
  content, format, and outline.
• Drafting. The student writes or types the
  composition.
• Revision. The student reviews the content of the
  composition-in-progress and makes changes as
  needed. After producing an initial written draft,
  the student considers revisions to content before
  turning in for a grade or evaluation.
• Editing. The student looks over the composition
  and corrects any mechanical mistakes
  (capitalization, punctuation, etc.).
• Publication The student submits the composition
  in finished form.

Source Robinson, L. K., Howell, K. W. (2008).
Best practices in curriculum-based evaluation
written expression. In A. Thomas J. Grimes
(Eds.), Best practices in school psychology V
(pp. 439-452). Bethesda, MD National Association
of School Psychologists.
81
Graham, S., Perin, D. (2007). Writing next
Effective strategies to improve writing of
adolescents in middle and high schools A report
to Carnegie Corporation of New York. Washington,
DC Alliance for Excellent Education. Retrieved
from http//www.all4ed.org/files/WritingNext.pdf
82
The Effect of Grammar Instruction as an
Independent Activity

• Grammar instruction in the studies reviewed
  for the Writing Next report involved the
  explicit and systematic teaching of the parts of
  speech and structure of sentences. The
  meta-analysis found an effect for this type of
  instruction for students across the full range of
  ability, but surprisingly, this effect was
  negativeSuch findings raise serious questions
  about some educators enthusiasm for traditional
  grammar instruction as a focus of writing
  instruction for adolescents.Overall, the
  findings on grammar instruction suggest that,
  although teaching grammar is important,
  alternative procedures, such as sentence
  combining, are more effective than traditional
  approaches for improving the quality of students
  writing. p. 21

Source Graham, S., Perin, D. (2007). Writing
next Effective strategies to improve writing of
adolescents in middle and high schools A report
to Carnegie Corporation of New York. Washington,
DC Alliance for Excellent Education.
83
Evaluating the Impact of Effect Size Coefficients

• 0.20 Effect Size Small
• 0.50 Effect Size Medium
• 0.80 Effect Size Large

Source Cohen,J. (1988). Statistical power
analysis for the behavioral sciences (2nded.).
Hillsdale,NJErlbaum.
84

• Elements of effective writing instruction for
  adolescents
• Writing Process (Effect Size 0.82) Students
  are taught a process for planning, revising, and
  editing.
• Summarizing (Effect Size 0.82) Students are
  taught methods to identify key points, main ideas
  from readings to write summaries of source texts.
• Cooperative Learning Activities (Collaborative
  Writing) (Effect Size 0.75) Students are
  placed in pairs or groups with learning
  activities that focus on collaborative use of the
  writing process.
• Goal-Setting (Effect Size 0.70) Students set
  specific product goals for their writing and
  then check their attainment of those
  self-generated goals.

Source Graham, S., Perin, D. (2007). Writing
next Effective strategies to improve writing of
adolescents in middle and high schools A report
to Carnegie Corporation of New York. Washington,
DC Alliance for Excellent Education. Retrieved
from http//www.all4ed.org/files/WritingNext.pdf
85

• Elements of effective writing instruction for
  adolescents
• Writing Processors (Effect Size 0.55) Students
  have access to computers/word processors in the
  writing process.
• Sentence Combining (Effect Size 0.50) Students
  take part in instructional activities that
  require the combination or embedding of simpler
  sentences (e.g., Noun-Verb-Object) to generate
  more advanced, complex sentences.
• Prewriting (Effect Size 0.32) Students learn
  to select, develop, or organize ideas to
  incorporate into their writing by participating
  in structured pre-writing activities.
• Inquiry Activities (Effect Size 0.32) Students
  become actively engaged researchers, collecting
  and analyzing information to guide the ideas and
  content for writing assignments.

Source Graham, S., Perin, D. (2007). Writing
next Effective strategies to improve writing of
adolescents in middle and high schools A report
to Carnegie Corporation of New York. Washington,
DC Alliance for Excellent Education. Retrieved
from http//www.all4ed.org/files/WritingNext.pdf
86

• Elements of effective writing instruction for
  adolescents
• Process Writing (Effect Size 0.32) Writing
  instruction is taught in a workshop format that
  stresses extended writing opportunities,
  writing for authentic audiences, personalized
  instruction, and cycles of writing (Graham
  Perin, 2007 p. 4).
• Use of Writing Models (Effect Size 0.25)
  Students read and discuss models of good writing
  and use them as exemplars for their own writing.
• Writing to Learn Content (Effect Size 0.23)
  The instructor incorporates writing activities as
  a means to have students learn content material.

Source Graham, S., Perin, D. (2007). Writing
next Effective strategies to improve writing of
adolescents in middle and high schools A report
to Carnegie Corporation of New York. Washington,
DC Alliance for Excellent Education. Retrieved
from http//www.all4ed.org/files/WritingNext.pdf
87
Question How Does a School Use Research
Information to Influence Classroom Practice?

• In this workshop, we reviewed recommendations
  from the Writing Next manual, a meta-analysis of
  effective writing instructional elements.
• How might your school use information sources
  like this to influence classroom practice?

88

• "The difference between the right word and the
  almost right word is the difference between
  lightning and the lightning bug."
• Mark Twain

89

• "Your manuscript is both good and original. But
  the part that is good is not original, and the
  part that is original is not good."
• Samuel Johnson

90
Selected Writing Interventions
91
Fluency Have Students Write Every Day

• Short daily writing assignments can build
  student writing fluency and make writing a more
  motivating activity. Poor writers gradually
  develop into better writers when they are
  prompted to write daily--and receive rapid
  feedback and encouragement about that writing.
• The teacher can encourage daily writing by
• giving short writing assignments
• allowing time for students to journal about their
  learning activities
• requiring that they correspond daily with pen
  pals via email
• even posting a question on the board as a
  bell-ringer activity that students can respond to
  in writing for extra credit.

Source Graham, S., Harris, K. R., Larsen, L.
(2001). Prevention and intervention of writing
difficulties for students with learning
disabilities. Learning Disabilities Research
Practice, 16, 74-84.
92
Writing Support in the Classroom Essentials of
Effective Instruction

• Teachers are most successful in reaching
  students with writing delays when they
• Build their written expression lessons around
  the 3 stages of writing planning, writing, and
  revision and make those stages clear and
  explicit.
• Provide students with think sheets that outline
  step-by-step strategies for tackle the different
  phases of a writing assignment (e.g., taking
  concise notes from research material building
  an outline proofreading a draft).
• Expose students to different kinds of expressive
  text, such as persuasive, narrative, and
  expository writing-- good prose models that the
  student can review when completing a writing
  assignment.
• Give supportive and timely feedback to students
  about their writing. When teachers or classmates
  offer writing feedback to the student, they are
  honest but also maintain an encouraging tone.

Source Gersten, R., Baker, S., Edwards, L.
(1999). Teaching expressive writing to students
with learning disabilities A meta-analysis. New
York National Center for Learning Disabilities.
93
Integrated Writing Instruction (MacArthur,
Graham, Schwarz, 1993 )

• The instructor follows a uniform daily
  instructional framework for writing instruction.
• Status-checking. At the start of the writing
  session, the instructor quickly goes around the
  room, asking each student what writing goal(s) he
  or she plans to accomplish that day. The
  instructor records these responses for all to
  see.
• Mini-Lesson. The instructor teaches a mini-lesson
  relevant to the writing process. Mini-lessons are
  a useful means to present explicit writing
  strategies (e.g., an outline for drafting an
  opinion essay) as well as a forum for reviewing
  the conventions of writing. Mini-lessons should
  be kept short (e.g.,5-10 minutes) to hold the
  attention of the class.

94
Integrated Writing Instruction Cont. (MacArthur,
Graham, Schwarz, 1993 )

• Student Writing. During the session, substantial
  time is set aside for students to write. Their
  writing assignment might be one handed out that
  day or part of a longer composition (e.g., story,
  extended essay) that the student is writing and
  editing across multiple days. When possible,
  student writers are encouraged to use computers
  as aids in composing and editing their work.
• Peer Teacher Conferences. At the end of the
  daily writing block, the student may sit with a
  classmate to review each other's work, using a
  structured peer editing strategy. During this
  discussion time, the teacher also holds brief
  individual conferences with students to review
  their work, have students evaluate how
  successfully they completed their writing goals
  for the day, and hear writers' thoughts about how
  they might plan to further develop a writing
  assignment.

95
Integrated Writing Instruction Cont. (MacArthur,
Graham, Schwarz, 1993 )

• Group Sharing or Publishing. At the end of each
  session, writing produced that day is shared with
  the whole class. Students might volunteer to read
  passages aloud from their compositions. Students
  are encouraged to choose more polished work and
  post it on the classroom wall or bulletin board,
  have their work displayed in a public area of the
  school, publish the work in an anthology of
  school writings, read it aloud at school
  assemblies, or publish it on a school Internet
  site.

96
Monitoring to Increase Writing Fluency (Rathvon,
1999)

• Students gain motivation to write through daily
  monitoring and charting of their own and
  classwide rates of writing fluency.
• Assign timed freewriting several times per week.
• After each freewriting period, direct each
  student to count up the number of words he or she
  has written in their daily journal entry (whether
  spelled correctly or not).
• Have students to record their personal
  writing-fluency score in their journal and also
  chart the score on their own time-series graph
  for visual feedback.
• Collect the days writing-fluency scores of all
  students in the class, sum those scores, and
  chart the results on a large time-series graph
  posted at the front of the room.
• Raise the class goal by five percent per week.

97
Organization Build an Outline by Talking Through
the Topic

• Students who struggle to organize their notes
  into a coherent outline can tell others what
  they know about the topicand then capture the
  informal logical structure of that conversation
  to create a working outline.
• The student studies notes from the topic and
  describes what he or she knows about the topic
  and its significance to a listener. (The student
  may want to audio-record this conversation for
  later playback.)
• After the conversation, the student jots down an
  outline from memory to capture the structure and
  main ideas of the discussion.
• This outline kernel can then be expanded and
  refined into the framework for a paper.

Source The Writing Center, University of North
Carolina at Chapel Hill (n.d.). Reorganizing your
draft. Retrieved December 23, 2006, from
http//www.unc.edu/depts/wcweb/handouts/organizati
on.html
98
Organization Reverse Outline the Draft

• Students can improve the internal flow of their
  compositions through reverse outlining.
• The student writes a draft of the composition.
• Next, the student reads through the draft,
  jotting notes in the margins that signify the
  main idea of each paragraph or section.
• Then the student organizes the margin notes into
  an outline to reveal the organizational structure
  of the paper.
• This reverse outline allows the student to note
  whether sections of the draft are repetitious,
  are out of order, or do not logically connect
  with one another.

Source The Writing Center, University of North
Carolina at Chapel Hill (n.d.). Reorganizing your
draft. Retrieved December 23, 2006, from
http//www.unc.edu/depts/wcweb/handouts/organizati
on.html
99
A Memory Device for Proofreading SCOPE (Bos
Vaughn, 2002)

• When students regularly use a simple, portable,
  easily memorized plan for proofreading, the
  quality of their writing improves significantly.
• Create and have students refer to a classroom
  with the SCOPE proofreading elements Spelling
  Are my words spelled correctly Capitalization
  Have I capitalized all appropriate words,
  including first words of sentences, proper nouns,
  and proper names? Order of words Is my word
  order (syntax) correct? Punctuation Did I use
  end punctuation and other punctuation marks