Title: RtI%20Lab%20for%20Secondary%20Schools:%20Effective%20Academic%20Interventions%20for%20Struggling%20Students%20Jim%20Wright%20www.interventioncentral.org
1RtI Lab for Secondary SchoolsEffective Academic
Interventions for Struggling StudentsJim
Wrightwww.interventioncentral.org
2Workshop Agenda
3Workshop PowerPoints and Related Resources
Available at
- http//www.jimwrightonline.com/lake_county_ROE.ph
p
4RTI Assumption Struggling Students Are Typical
Until Proven Otherwise
- RTI logic assumes that
- A student who begins to struggle in general
education is typical, and that - It is general educations responsibility to find
the instructional strategies that will unlock the
students learning potential - Only when the student shows through
well-documented interventions that he or she has
failed to respond to intervention does RTI
begin to investigate the possibility that the
student may have a learning disability or other
special education condition.
5Secondary Students Unique Challenges
- Struggling learners in middle and high school
may - Have significant deficits in basic academic
skills - Lack higher-level problem-solving strategies and
concepts - Present with issues of school motivation
- Show social/emotional concerns that interfere
with academics - Have difficulty with attendance
- Are often in a process of disengaging from
learning even as adults in school expect that
those students will move toward being
self-managing learners
6RTI Pyramid of Interventions
7Tier 1 (Classroom) Literacy Interventions for
Middle High Schools A Skill-Building Lab Jim
Wrightwww.interventioncentral.org
8Promoting Literacy in Middle High School
Classrooms Three Elements
- Explicit vocabulary instruction
- Reading comprehension
- Extended discussion
Source Kamil, M. L., Borman, G. D., Dole, J.,
Kral, C. C., Salinger, T., Torgesen, J. (2008).
Improving adolescent literacy Effective
classroom and intervention practices A practice
guide (NCEE 2008-4027). Washington, DC National
Center for Education Evaluation and Regional
Assistance, Institute of Education Sciences, U.S.
Department of Education. Retrieved from
http//ies.ed.gov/ncee/wwc.
9RTI Secondary LiteracyExplicit Vocabulary
Instruction
10Vocabulary Why This Instructional Goal is
Important
- As vocabulary terms become more specialized in
content area courses, students are less able to
derive the meaning of unfamiliar words from
context alone. - Students must instead learn vocabulary through
more direct means, including having opportunities
to explicitly memorize words and their
definitions. - Students may require 12 to 17 meaningful
exposures to a word to learn it.
11Provide Dictionary Training
- The student is trained to use an Internet lookup
strategy to better understand dictionary or
glossary definitions of key vocabulary items. - The student first looks up the word and its
meaning(s) in the dictionary/glossary. - If necessary, the student isolates the specific
word meaning that appears to be the appropriate
match for the term as it appears in course texts
and discussion. - The student goes to an Internet search engine
(e.g., Google) and locates at least five text
samples in which the term is used in context and
appears to match the selected dictionary
definition.
12Promote Wide Reading
- Students read widely in the content area, using
texts that supplement and extend information
supplied by the textbook. Wide reading results
in substantial increases in student vocabulary
over time due to incidental learning. To
strengthen the positive impact of wide reading on
vocabulary development, have student texts
available that vary in difficulty and that are of
high interest. Discuss readings in class.
Experiment with ways to document student
independent reading and integrate that wide
reading into an effort grade for the course. If
needed, build time into the students school
schedule for supervised wide reading time.
13Hold Read-Alouds
- Select texts that supplement the course textbook
and that illustrate central concepts and contain
important vocabulary covered in the course. Read
those texts aloud for 3 to 5 minutes per class
session--while students follow along silently.
Read-alouds provide students with additional
exposure to vocabulary items in context. They can
also lower the threshold of difficulty Students
may be more likely to attempt to read an assigned
text independently if they have already gotten a
start in the text by listening to a more advanced
reader read the first few pages aloud.
Read-alouds can support other vocabulary-building
activities such as guided discussion, vocabulary
review, and wide reading.
14 Provide Regular In-Class Instruction and Review
of Vocabulary Terms, Definitions
- Present important new vocabulary terms in class,
along with student-friendly definitions. Provide
example sentences to illustrate the use of the
term. Assign students to write example sentences
employing new vocabulary to illustrate their
mastery of the terms.
15 Generate Possible Sentences
- The teacher selects 6 to 8 challenging new
vocabulary terms and 4 to 6 easier, more familiar
vocabulary items relevant to the lesson.
Introduce the vocabulary terms to the class. Have
students write sentences that contain at least
two words from the posted vocabulary list. Then
write examples of student sentences on the board
until all words from the list have been used.
After the assigned reading, review the possible
sentences that were previously generated.
Evaluate as a group whether, based on the
passage, the sentence is possible (true) in its
current form. If needed, have the group recommend
how to change the sentence to make it possible.
16Enhance Vocabulary Instruction Through Use of
Graphic Organizers or Displays A Sampling
- Teachers can use graphic displays to structure
their vocabulary discussions and activities
(Boardman et al., 2008 Fisher, 2007 Texas
Reading Initiative, 2002).
174-Square Graphic Display
- The student divides a page into four quadrants.
In the upper left section, the student writes the
target word. In the lower left section, the
student writes the word definition. In the upper
right section, the student generates a list of
examples that illustrate the term, and in the
lower right section, the student writes
non-examples (e.g., terms that are the opposite
of the target vocabulary word).
18(No Transcript)
19Semantic Word Definition Map
- The graphic display contains sections in which
the student writes the word, its definition
(what is this?), additional details that extend
its meaning (What is it like?), as well as a
listing of examples and non-examples (e.g.,
terms that are the opposite of the target
vocabulary word).
20Word Definition Map Example
21(No Transcript)
22Semantic Feature Analysis
- A target vocabulary term is selected for
analysis in this grid-like graphic display.
Possible features or properties of the term
appear along the top margin, while examples of
the term are listed ion the left margin. The
student considers the vocabulary term and its
definition. Then the student evaluates each
example of the term to determine whether it does
or does not match each possible term property or
element.
23Semantic Feature Analysis Example
- VOCABULARY TERM TRANSPORTATION
24(No Transcript)
25Comparison/Contrast (Venn) Diagram
- Two terms are listed and defined. For each term,
the student brainstorms qualities or properties
or examples that illustrate the terms meaning.
Then the student groups those qualities,
properties, and examples into 3 sections - items unique to Term 1
- items unique to Term 2
- items shared by both terms
26(No Transcript)
27Team Activity Evaluate Academic Content-Area
Vocabulary Strategies
- Review the Troubleshooting Tips and Building
Capacity sections of the intervention write-up. - Share your thoughts about how you would promote
the use of these strategies in your classrooms. - Devise at least ONE strategy to move forward in
getting teachers to expand their skills in this
intervention area.
28RTI Secondary LiteracyExtended Discussion
29Extended Discussions Why This Instructional Goal
is Important
- Extended, guided group discussion is a powerful
means to help students to learn vocabulary and
advanced concepts. Discussion can also model for
students various thinking processes and
cognitive strategies (Kamil et al. 2008, p. 22).
To be effective, guided discussion should go
beyond students answering a series of factual
questions posed by the teacher Quality
discussions are typically open-ended and
exploratory in nature, allowing for multiple
points of view (Kamil et al., 2008). - When group discussion is used regularly and
well in instruction, students show increased
growth in literacy skills. Content-area teachers
can use it to demonstrate the habits of mind
and patterns of thinking of experts in various
their discipline e.g., historians,
mathematicians, chemists, engineers, literacy
critics, etc.
30Use a Standard Protocol to Structure Extended
Discussions
- Good extended classwide discussions elicit a
wide range of student opinions, subject
individual viewpoints to critical scrutiny in a
supportive manner, put forth alternative views,
and bring closure by summarizing the main points
of the discussion. Teachers can use a simple
structure to effectively and reliably organize
their discussions
31Standard Protocol Discussion Format
- Pose questions to the class that require students
to explain their positions and their reasoning . - When needed, think aloud as the discussion
leader to model good reasoning practices (e.g.,
taking a clear stand on a topic). - Supportively challenge student views by offering
possible counter arguments. - Single out and mention examples of effective
student reasoning. - Avoid being overly directive the purpose of
extended discussions is to more fully investigate
and think about complex topics. - Sum up the general ground covered in the
discussion and highlight the main ideas covered.
32Team Activity Evaluate Extended Discussion
Strategies
- Review the Troubleshooting Tips and Building
Capacity sections of the intervention write-up. - Share your thoughts about how you would promote
the use of this strategy in your classrooms. - Devise at least ONE strategy to move forward in
getting teachers to expand their skills in this
intervention area.
33RTI Secondary LiteracyReading Comprehension
34Reading Comprehension Why This Instructional
Goal is Important
- Students require strong reading comprehension
skills to succeed in challenging content-area
classes.At present, there is no clear evidence
that any one reading comprehension instructional
technique is clearly superior to others. In fact,
it appears that students benefit from being
taught any self-directed practice that prompts
them to engage more actively in understanding the
meaning of text (Kamil et al., 2008).
35Assist Students in Setting Content Goals for
Reading
- Students are more likely to be motivated to
read--and to read more closelyif they have
specific content-related reading goals in mind.
At the start of a reading assignment, for
example, the instructor has students state what
questions they might seek to answer or what
topics they would like to learn more about in
their reading. The student or teacher writes down
these questions. After students have completed
the assigned reading, they review their original
questions and share what they have learned (e.g.,
through discussion in large group or cooperative
learning group, or even as a written assignment).
36Teach Question-Answer Relationships (QARs)
- RIGHT THERE questions are fact-based and can be
found in a single sentence, often accompanied by
'clue' words that also appear in the question. - THINK AND SEARCH questions can be answered from
the text--but answers must be pieced together by
scanning the text and making connections between
different pieces of factual information. - AUTHOR AND YOU questions require that students
take information or opinions that appear in the
text and combine them with the reader's own
experiences or opinions. - ON MY OWN questions are based on the students'
own experiences and do not require knowledge of
the text to answer.
37Team Activity Classroom Literacy Strategies
Middle and High School
- At your table Think of the content-area teacher
who may believe that it is not his or her job
to promote literacy skills through whole-group,
small-group, or individual strategies. - How would you attempt to change that teachers
mind? - How can you help a reluctant teacher to adopt
core-instruction or intervention strategies like
those presented here?
38Promoting Student Reading Comprehension Fix-Up
SkillsJim Wrightwww.interventioncentral.org
39Reading Comprehension Fix-Up Skills A Toolkit
- Good readers continuously monitor their
understanding of informational text. When
necessary, they also take steps to improve their
understanding of text through use of reading
comprehension fix-up skills. - Presented here are a series of fix-up skill
strategies that can help struggling students to
better understand difficult reading assignments
40Reading Comprehension Fix-Up Skills A Toolkit
(Cont.)
- Core Instruction Providing Main Idea Practice
through Partner Retell (Carnine Carnine,
2004). Students in a group or class are assigned
a text selection to read silently. Students are
then paired off, with one student assigned the
role of reteller and the other appointed as
listener. The reteller recounts the main idea
to the listener, who can comment or ask
questions. The teacher then states the main idea
to the class. Next, the reteller locates two key
details from the reading that support the main
idea and shares these with the listener. At the
end of the activity, the teacher does a spot
check by randomly calling on one or more students
in the listener role and asking them to recap
what information was shared by the reteller.
41Reading Comprehension Fix-Up Skills A Toolkit
(Cont.)
- Accommodation Developing a Bank of Multiple
Passages to Present Challenging Concepts (Hedin
Conderman, 2010 Kamil et al., 2008 Texas
Reading Initiative, 2002). The teacher notes
which course concepts, cognitive strategies, or
other information will likely present the
greatest challenge to students. For these
challenge topics, the teacher selects
alternative readings that present the same
general information and review the same key
vocabulary as the course text but that are more
accessible to struggling readers (e.g., with
selections written at an easier reading level or
that use graphics to visually illustrate
concepts). These alternative selections are
organized into a bank that students can access as
a source of wide reading material.
42Reading Comprehension Fix-Up Skills A Toolkit
(Cont.)
- Student Strategy Promoting Understanding
Building Endurance through Reading-Reflection
Pauses (Hedin Conderman, 2010). The student
decides on a reading interval (e.g., every four
sentences every 3 minutes at the end of each
paragraph). At the end of each interval, the
student pauses briefly to recall the main points
of the reading. If the student has questions or
is uncertain about the content, the student
rereads part or all of the section just read.
This strategy is useful both for students who
need to monitor their understanding as well as
those who benefit from brief breaks when engaging
in intensive reading as a means to build up
endurance as attentive readers.
43Reading Comprehension Fix-Up Skills A Toolkit
(Cont.)
- Student Strategy Identifying or Constructing
Main Idea Sentences (Davey McBride, 1986
Rosenshine, Meister Chapman, 1996). For each
paragraph in an assigned reading, the student
either (a) highlights the main idea sentence or
(b) highlights key details and uses them to write
a gist sentence. The student then writes the
main idea of that paragraph on an index card. On
the other side of the card, the student writes a
question whose answer is that paragraphs main
idea sentence. This stack of main idea cards
becomes a useful tool to review assigned
readings.
44Reading Comprehension Fix-Up Skills A Toolkit
(Cont.)
- Student Strategy Restructuring Paragraphs with
Main Idea First to Strengthen Rereads (Hedin
Conderman, 2010). The student highlights or
creates a main idea sentence for each paragraph
in the assigned reading. When rereading each
paragraph of the selection, the student (1) reads
the main idea sentence or student-generated
gist sentence first (irrespective of where that
sentence actually falls in the paragraph) (2)
reads the remainder of the paragraph, and (3)
reflects on how the main idea relates to the
paragraph content.
45Reading Comprehension Fix-Up Skills A Toolkit
(Cont.)
- Student Strategy Summarizing Readings (Boardman
et al., 2008). The student is taught to summarize
readings into main ideas and essential
details--stripped of superfluous content. The act
of summarizing longer readings can promote
understanding and retention of content while the
summarized text itself can be a useful study
tool.
46Reading Comprehension Fix-Up Skills A Toolkit
(Cont.)
- Student Strategy Linking Pronouns to Referents
(Hedin Conderman, 2010). Some readers lose the
connection between pronouns and the nouns that
they refer to (known as referents)especially
when reading challenging text. The student is
encouraged to circle pronouns in the reading, to
explicitly identify each pronouns referent, and
(optionally) to write next to the pronoun the
name of its referent. For example, the student
may add the referent to a pronoun in this
sentence from a biology text The Cambrian
Period is the first geological age that has large
numbers of multi-celled organisms associated with
it Cambrian Period.
47Reading Comprehension Fix-Up Skills A Toolkit
(Cont.)
- Student Strategy Apply Vocabulary Fix-Up
Skills for Unknown Words (Klingner Vaughn,
1999). When confronting an unknown word in a
reading selection, the student applies the
following vocabulary fix-up skills - Read the sentence again.
- Read the sentences before and after the problem
sentence for clues to the words meaning. - See if there are prefixes or suffixes in the word
that can give clues to meaning. - Break the word up by syllables and look for
smaller words within.
48Reading Comprehension Fix-Up Skills A Toolkit
(Cont.)
- Student Strategy Compiling a Vocabulary Journal
from Course Readings (Hedin Conderman, 2010).
The student highlights new or unfamiliar
vocabulary from course readings. The student
writes each term into a vocabulary journal, using
a standard sentence-stem format e.g., Mitosis
means or A chloroplast is. If the student is
unable to generate a definition for a vocabulary
term based on the course reading, he or she
writes the term into the vocabulary journal
without definition and then applies other
strategies to define the term e.g., look up the
term in a dictionary use Google to locate two
examples of the term being used correctly in
context ask the instructor, etc.).
49Reading Comprehension Fix-Up Skills A Toolkit
(Cont.)
- Student Strategy Encouraging Student Use of
Text Enhancements (Hedin Conderman, 2010). Text
enhancements can be used to tag important
vocabulary terms, key ideas, or other reading
content. If working with photocopied material,
the student can use a highlighter to note key
ideas or vocabulary. Another enhancement strategy
is the lasso and rope techniqueusing a pen or
pencil to circle a vocabulary term and then
drawing a line that connects that term to its
underlined definition. If working from a
textbook, the student can cut sticky notes into
strips. These strips can be inserted in the book
as pointers to text of interest. They can also be
used as temporary labelse.g., for writing a
vocabulary term and its definition.
50Reading Comprehension Fix-Up Skills A Toolkit
(Cont.)
- Student Strategy Reading Actively Through Text
Annotation (Harris, 1990 Sarkisian et al.,
2003). Students are likely to increase their
retention of information when they interact
actively with their reading by jotting comments
in the margin of the text. Using photocopies, the
student is taught to engage in an ongoing
'conversation' with the writer by recording a
running series of brief comments in the margins
of the text. The student may write annotations to
record opinions about points raised by the
writer, questions triggered by the reading, or
unknown vocabulary words.
51Team Activity Promoting Reading Comprehsnion
Fix-Up Skills in Middle and High Schools
- At your table
- Consider the ideas included in the Reading
Comprehension Fix-Up Skills (pp. 19-20) section
of the Strategies handout. - What are some ideas that your school might
consider to promote the use of these strategies
across classrooms, grade levels, and/or within
departments?
52Tier 1 The Key Role of Classroom Teachers in
RTIJim Wrightwww.interventioncentral.org
53RTI Pyramid of Interventions
54Tier 1 Core Instruction
- Tier I core instruction
- Is universalavailable to all students.
- Can be delivered within classrooms or throughout
the school. - Is an ongoing process of developing strong
classroom instructional practices to reach the
largest number of struggling learners. - All children have access to Tier 1
instruction/interventions. Teachers have the
capability to use those strategies without
requiring outside assistance. - Tier 1 instruction encompasses
- The schools core curriculum.
- Al published or teacher-made materials used to
deliver that curriculum. - Teacher use of whole-group teaching
management strategies. - Tier I instruction addresses this question Are
strong classroom instructional strategies
sufficient to help the student to achieve
academic success?
55Tier I (Classroom) Intervention
- Tier 1 intervention
- Targets red flag students who are not
successful with core instruction alone. - Uses evidence-based strategies to address
student academic or behavioral concerns. - Must be feasible to implement given the resources
available in the classroom. -
- Tier I intervention addresses the question Does
the student make adequate progress when the
instructor uses specific academic or behavioral
strategies matched to the presenting concern?
56The Key Role of Classroom Teachers in RTI 6 Steps
- The teacher defines the student academic or
behavioral problem clearly. - The teacher decides on the best explanation for
why the problem is occurring. - The teacher selects evidence-based
interventions. - The teacher documents the students Tier 1
intervention plan. - The teacher monitors the students response
(progress) to the intervention plan. - The teacher knows what the next steps are when a
student fails to make adequate progress with Tier
1 interventions alone.
57Engaging the Reluctant Teacher 7 Reasons Why
Instructors May Resist Implementing Classroom RTI
InterventionsJim Wrightwww.interventioncentral.
org
58Teacher Tolerance as an Indicator of RTI
Intervention Capacity
- I call the range of students whom teachers
come to view as adequately responsive i.e.,
teachable as the tolerance those who are
perceived to be outside the tolerance are those
for whom teachers seek additional resources. The
term tolerance is used to indicate that
teachers form a permissible boundary on their
measurement (judgments) in the same sense as a
confidence interval. In this case, the teacher
actively measures the distribution of
responsiveness in her class by processing
information from a series of teaching trials and
perceives some range of students as within the
tolerance. (Gerber, 2002)
Source Gerber, M. M. (2003). Teachers are still
the test Limitations of response to instruction
strategies for identifying children with learning
disabilities. Paper presented at the National
Research Center on Learning Disabilities
Responsiveness-to-Intervention Symposium, Kansas
City, MO.
59RTI Teacher Reluctance
- The willingness of teachers to implement
interventions is essential in any school to the
success of the RTI model. Yet general-education
teachers may not always see themselves as
interventionists and indeed may even resist the
expectation that they will provide individualized
interventions as a routine part of their
classroom practice (Walker, 2004). - It should be remembered, however, that teachers
reluctance to accept elements of RTI may be based
on very good reasons. Here are some common
reasons that teachers might be reluctant to
accept their role as RTI intervention first
responders
60Engaging the Reluctant Teacher 7 Reasons Why
Instructors May Resist Implementing Classroom RTI
Interventions
- Lack of Skills. Teachers lack the skills
necessary to successfully implement academic or
behavioral interventions in their content-area
classrooms (Fisher, 2007 Kamil et al., 2008). - Not My Job. Teachers define their job as
providing content-area instruction. They do not
believe that providing classwide or individual
academic and behavioral interventions falls
within their job description (Kamil et al., 2008).
61Engaging the Reluctant Teacher 7 Reasons Why
Instructors May Resist Implementing Classroom RTI
Interventions(Cont.)
- No Time. Teachers do not believe that they have
sufficient time available in classroom
instruction to implement academic or behavioral
interventions (Kamil et al., 2008 Walker,
2004). - Insufficient Payoff. Teachers lack confidence
that there will be an adequate instructional
pay-off if they put classwide or individual
academic or behavioral interventions into place
in their content-area classroom (Kamil et al.,
2008).
62Engaging the Reluctant Teacher 7 Reasons Why
Instructors May Resist Implementing Classroom RTI
Interventions (Cont.)
- Loss of Classroom Control. Teachers worry that if
they depart from their standard instructional
practices to adopt new classwide or individual
academic or behavior intervention strategies,
they may lose behavioral control of the classroom
(Kamil et al., 2008). - Undeserving Students. Teachers are unwilling to
invest the required effort to provide academic or
behavioral interventions for unmotivated students
(Walker, 2004) because they would rather put that
time into providing additional attention to
well-behaved, motivated students who are more
deserving.
63Engaging the Reluctant Teacher 7 Reasons Why
Instructors May Resist Implementing Classroom RTI
Interventions (Cont.)
- The Magic of Special Education. Content-area
teachers regard special education services as
magic (Martens, 1993). According to this view,
interventions provided to struggling students in
the general-education classroom alone will be
inadequate, and only special education services
have the power to truly benefit those students.
64Engaging the Reluctant Teacher Seven Reasons Why
Instructors May Resist Implementing Classroom RTI
Literacy Interventions
- Lack of Skills. Teachers lack the skills
necessary to successfully implement academic or
behavioral interventions in their content-area
classrooms. - Not My Job. Teachers define their job as
providing content-area instruction. They do not
believe that providing classwide or individual
academic and behavioral interventions falls
within their job description. - No Time. Teachers do not believe that they have
sufficient time available in classroom
instruction to implement academic or behavioral
interventions. - Insufficient Payoff. Teachers lack confidence
that there will be an adequate instructional
pay-off if they put classwide or individual
academic or behavioral interventions into place
in their content-area classroom. - Loss of Classroom Control. Teachers worry that if
they depart from their standard instructional
practices to adopt new classwide or individual
academic or behavior intervention strategies,
they may lose behavioral control of the
classroom. - Undeserving Students. Teachers are unwilling to
invest the required effort to provide academic or
behavioral interventions for unmotivated students
because they would rather put that time into
providing additional attention to well-behaved,
motivated students who are more deserving. - The Magic of Special Education. Content-area
teachers regard special education services as
magic. According to this view, interventions
provided to struggling students in the
general-education classroom alone will be
inadequate, and only special education services
have the power to truly benefit those students.
65Building Teacher Capacity to Deliver Tier 1
Interventions An 8-Step Checklist Jim
Wrightwww.interventioncentral.org
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77Table Activity Building Teacher Tier 1
Intervention Capacity (Support Materials pp.
20-26)
- At your tables
- Review the 8-step process presented in this
workshop for developing teacher capacity to do
classroom interventions. - Discuss the steps that you would take to
implement this process in your own middle or high
school.
78RTI WritingInstruction Interventions Jim
Wrightwww.interventioncentral.org
79- "If all the grammarians in the world were placed
end to end, it would be a good thing." - Oscar Wilde
80Graham, S., Perin, D. (2007). Writing next
Effective strategies to improve writing of
adolescents in middle and high schools A report
to Carnegie Corporation of New York. Washington,
DC Alliance for Excellent Education. Retrieved
from http//www.all4ed.org/files/WritingNext.pdf
81The Effect of Grammar Instruction as an
Independent Activity
- Grammar instruction in the studies reviewed
for the Writing Next report involved the
explicit and systematic teaching of the parts of
speech and structure of sentences. The
meta-analysis found an effect for this type of
instruction for students across the full range of
ability, but surprisingly, this effect was
negativeSuch findings raise serious questions
about some educators enthusiasm for traditional
grammar instruction as a focus of writing
instruction for adolescents.Overall, the
findings on grammar instruction suggest that,
although teaching grammar is important,
alternative procedures, such as sentence
combining, are more effective than traditional
approaches for improving the quality of students
writing. p. 21
Source Graham, S., Perin, D. (2007). Writing
next Effective strategies to improve writing of
adolescents in middle and high schools A report
to Carnegie Corporation of New York. Washington,
DC Alliance for Excellent Education.
82- Elements of effective writing instruction for
adolescents - Writing Process (Effect Size 0.82) Students
are taught a process for planning, revising, and
editing. - Summarizing (Effect Size 0.82) Students are
taught methods to identify key points, main ideas
from readings to write summaries of source texts. - Cooperative Learning Activities (Collaborative
Writing) (Effect Size 0.75) Students are
placed in pairs or groups with learning
activities that focus on collaborative use of the
writing process. - Goal-Setting (Effect Size 0.70) Students set
specific product goals for their writing and
then check their attainment of those
self-generated goals.
Source Graham, S., Perin, D. (2007). Writing
next Effective strategies to improve writing of
adolescents in middle and high schools A report
to Carnegie Corporation of New York. Washington,
DC Alliance for Excellent Education. Retrieved
from http//www.all4ed.org/files/WritingNext.pdf
83- Elements of effective writing instruction for
adolescents - Writing Processors (Effect Size 0.55) Students
have access to computers/word processors in the
writing process. - Sentence Combining (Effect Size 0.50) Students
take part in instructional activities that
require the combination or embedding of simpler
sentences (e.g., Noun-Verb-Object) to generate
more advanced, complex sentences. - Prewriting (Effect Size 0.32) Students learn
to select, develop, or organize ideas to
incorporate into their writing by participating
in structured pre-writing activities. - Inquiry Activities (Effect Size 0.32) Students
become actively engaged researchers, collecting
and analyzing information to guide the ideas and
content for writing assignments.
Source Graham, S., Perin, D. (2007). Writing
next Effective strategies to improve writing of
adolescents in middle and high schools A report
to Carnegie Corporation of New York. Washington,
DC Alliance for Excellent Education. Retrieved
from http//www.all4ed.org/files/WritingNext.pdf
84- Elements of effective writing instruction for
adolescents - Process Writing (Effect Size 0.32) Writing
instruction is taught in a workshop format that
stresses extended writing opportunities,
writing for authentic audiences, personalized
instruction, and cycles of writing (Graham
Perin, 2007 p. 4). - Use of Writing Models (Effect Size 0.25)
Students read and discuss models of good writing
and use them as exemplars for their own writing. - Writing to Learn Content (Effect Size 0.23)
The instructor incorporates writing activities as
a means to have students learn content material.
Source Graham, S., Perin, D. (2007). Writing
next Effective strategies to improve writing of
adolescents in middle and high schools A report
to Carnegie Corporation of New York. Washington,
DC Alliance for Excellent Education. Retrieved
from http//www.all4ed.org/files/WritingNext.pdf
85- "The difference between the right word and the
almost right word is the difference between
lightning and the lightning bug." - Mark Twain
86- "Your manuscript is both good and original. But
the part that is good is not original, and the
part that is original is not good." - Samuel Johnson
87Sentence Combining
- Students with poor writing skills often write
sentences that lack syntactic maturity. Their
sentences often follow a simple, stereotyped
format. A promising approach to teach students
use of diverse sentence structures is through
sentence combining. In sentence combining,
students are presented with kernel sentences and
given explicit instruction in how to weld these
kernel sentences into more diverse sentence types
either - by using connecting words to combine multiple
sentences into one or - by isolating key information from an otherwise
superfluous sentence and embedding that important
information into the base sentence.
Sources Saddler, B. (2005). Sentence combining
A sentence-level writing intervention. The
Reading Teacher, 58, 468-471. Strong, W. (1986).
Creative approaches to sentence combining.
Urbana, OL ERIC Clearinghouse on Reading and
Communication Skill National Council of
Teachers of English.
88Formatting Sentence Combining Examples
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92Table Activity Sentence Combining
- At your tables
- Discuss the sentence-combining strategy discussed
today. - What are ways that content-area teachers can use
this strategy to both help struggling writers AND
reinforce course content?
93Improving the Integrity of Academic Interventions
Through a Critical-Components Pre-Flight Check
Jim Wrightwww.interventioncentral.org
94Academic Interventions Critical Components
Checklist
95Academic Interventions Critical Components
Checklist
- This checklist summarizes the essential
components of academic interventions. When
preparing a students Tier 1, 2, or 3 academic
intervention plan, use this document as a
pre-flight checklist to ensure that the
academic intervention is of high quality, is
sufficiently strong to address the identified
student problem, is fully understood and
supported by the teacher, and can be implemented
with integrity. NOTE While the checklist refers
to the teacher as the interventionist, it can
also be used as a guide to ensure the quality of
interventions implemented by non-instructional
personnel, adult volunteers, parents, and peer
(student) tutors.
96Allocating Sufficient Contact Time Assuring Appropriate Student-Teacher Ratio Allocating Sufficient Contact Time Assuring Appropriate Student-Teacher Ratio Allocating Sufficient Contact Time Assuring Appropriate Student-Teacher Ratio
The cumulative time set aside for an intervention and the amount of direct teacher contact are two factors that help to determine that interventions strength (Yeaton Sechrest, 1981). The cumulative time set aside for an intervention and the amount of direct teacher contact are two factors that help to determine that interventions strength (Yeaton Sechrest, 1981). The cumulative time set aside for an intervention and the amount of direct teacher contact are two factors that help to determine that interventions strength (Yeaton Sechrest, 1981).
Critical Item? Intervention Element Notes
? Time Allocated. The time set aside for the intervention is appropriate for the type and level of student problem (Burns Gibbons, 2008 Kratochwill, Clements Kalymon, 2007). When evaluating whether the amount of time allocated is adequate, consider Length of each intervention session. Frequency of sessions (e.g.., daily, 3 times per week) Duration of intervention period (e.g., 6 instructional weeks)
? Student-Teacher Ratio. The student receives sufficient contact from the teacher or other person delivering the intervention to make that intervention effective. NOTE Generally, supplemental intervention groups should be limited to 6-7 students (Burns Gibbons, 2008).
97Matching the Intervention to the Student Problem Matching the Intervention to the Student Problem Matching the Intervention to the Student Problem
Academic interventions are not selected at random. First, the student academic problem(s) is defined clearly and in detail. Then, the likely explanations for the academic problem(s) are identified to understand which intervention(s) are likely to helpand which should be avoided. Academic interventions are not selected at random. First, the student academic problem(s) is defined clearly and in detail. Then, the likely explanations for the academic problem(s) are identified to understand which intervention(s) are likely to helpand which should be avoided. Academic interventions are not selected at random. First, the student academic problem(s) is defined clearly and in detail. Then, the likely explanations for the academic problem(s) are identified to understand which intervention(s) are likely to helpand which should be avoided.
Critical Item? Intervention Element Notes
? Problem Definition. The student academic problem(s) to be addressed in the intervention are defined in clear, specific, measureable terms (Bergan, 1995 Witt, VanDerHeyden Gilbertson, 2004). The full problem definition describes Conditions. Describe the environmental conditions or task demands in place when the academic problem is observed. Problem Description. Describe the actual observable academic behavior in which the student is engaged. Include rate, accuracy, or other quantitative information of student performance. Typical or Expected Level of Performance. Provide a typical or expected performance criterion for this skill or behavior. Typical or expected academic performance can be calculated using a variety of sources,
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99Matching the Intervention to the Student Problem (Cont.) Matching the Intervention to the Student Problem (Cont.) Matching the Intervention to the Student Problem (Cont.)
Critical Item? Intervention Element Notes
? Appropriate Target. Selected intervention(s) are appropriate for the identified student problem(s) (Burns, VanDerHeyden Boice, 2008). TIP Use the Instructional Hierarchy (Haring et al., 1978) to select academic interventions according to the four stages of learning Acquisition. The student has begun to learn how to complete the target skill correctly but is not yet accurate in the skill. Interventions should improve accuracy. Fluency. The student is able to complete the target skill accurately but works slowly. Interventions should increase the students speed of responding (fluency) as well as to maintain accuracy. Generalization. The student may have acquired the target skill but does not typically use it in the full range of appropriate situations or settings. Or the student may confuse the target skill with similar skills. Interventions should get the student to use the skill in the widest possible range of settings and situations, or to accurately discriminate between the target skill and similar skills. Adaptation. The student is not yet able to modify or adapt an existing skill to fit novel task-demands or situations. Interventions should help the student to identify key concepts or elements from previously learned skills that can be adapted to the new demands or situations.
100Matching the Intervention to the Student Problem (Cont.) Matching the Intervention to the Student Problem (Cont.) Matching the Intervention to the Student Problem (Cont.)
Critical Item? Intervention Element Notes
? Cant Do/Wont Do Check. The teacher has determined whether the student problem is primarily a skill or knowledge deficit (cant do) or whether student motivation plays a main or supporting role in academic underperformance (wont do). If motivation appears to be a significant factor contributing to the problem, the intervention plan includes strategies to engage the student (e.g., high interest learning activities rewards/incentives increased student choice in academic assignments, etc.) (Skinner, Pappas Davis, 2005 Witt, VanDerHeyden Gilbertson, 2004).
101Activity Matching the Intervention to the
Student Problem
- Consider these critical aspects of academic
intervention - Clear and specific problem-identification
statement (Conditions, Problem Description,
Typical/Expected Level of Performance). - Appropriate intervention target (e.g., selected
intervention is appropriately matched to
Acquisition, Fluency, Generalization, or
Adaptation phase of Instructional Hierarchy). - Cant Do/Wont Do Check (Clarification of whether
motivation plays a significant role in student
academic underperformance). - What questions do you have about applying any of
these concepts when planning classroom
interventions?
102Incorporating Effective Instructional Elements Incorporating Effective Instructional Elements Incorporating Effective Instructional Elements
These effective building blocks of instruction are well-known and well-supported by the research. They should be considered when selecting or creating any academic intervention. These effective building blocks of instruction are well-known and well-supported by the research. They should be considered when selecting or creating any academic intervention. These effective building blocks of instruction are well-known and well-supported by the research. They should be considered when selecting or creating any academic intervention.
Critical Item? Intervention Element Notes
? Explicit Instruction. Student skills have been broken down into manageable and deliberately sequenced steps and the teacher provided overt strategies for students to learn and practice new skills (Burns, VanDerHeyden Boice, 2008, p.1153).
? Appropriate Level of Challenge. The student experienced sufficient success in the academic task(s) to shape learning in the desired direction as well as to maintain student motivation (Burns, VanDerHeyden Boice, 2008).
? Active Engagement. The intervention ensures that the student is engaged in active accurate responding (Skinner, Pappas Davis, 2005).at a rate frequent enough to capture student attention and to optimize effective learning.
? Performance Feedback. The student receives prompt performance feedback about the work completed (Burns, VanDerHeyden Boice, 2008).
? Maintenance of Academic Standards. If the intervention includes any accommodations to better support the struggling learner (e.g., preferential seating, breaking a longer assignment into smaller chunks), those accommodations do not substantially lower the academic standards against which the student is to be evaluated and are not likely to reduce the students rate of learning (Skinner, Pappas Davis, 2005).
103Activity Incorporating Effective Instructional
Elements
- Think about the effective instructional elements
reviewed in this workshop. - How can teachers ensure that all effective
instructional elements are included in academic
interventions?
Incorporating Effective Instructional Elements Incorporating Effective Instructional Elements Incorporating Effective Instructional Elements
Critical Item? Intervention Element Notes
? Explicit Instruction.
? Appropriate Level of Challenge.
? Active Engagement..
? Performance Feedback.
? Maintenance of Academic Standards.
104Verifying Teacher Understanding Providing Teacher Support Verifying Teacher Understanding Providing Teacher Support Verifying Teacher Understanding Providing Teacher Support
The teacher is an active agent in the intervention, with primary responsibility for putting it into practice in a busy classroom. It is important, then, that the teacher fully understands how to do the intervention, believes that he or she can do it, and knows whom to seek out if there are problems with the intervention. The teacher is an active agent in the intervention, with primary responsibility for putting it into practice in a busy classroom. It is important, then, that the teacher fully understands how to do the intervention, believes that he or she can do it, and knows whom to seek out if there are problems with the intervention. The teacher is an active agent in the intervention, with primary responsibility for putting it into practice in a busy classroom. It is important, then, that the teacher fully understands how to do the intervention, believes that he or she can do it, and knows whom to seek out if there are problems with the intervention.
Critical Item? Intervention Element Notes
? Teacher Responsibility. The teacher understands his or her responsibility to implement the academic intervention(s) with integrity.
? Teacher Acceptability. The teacher states that he or she finds the academic intervention feasible and acceptable for the identified student problem.
? Step-by-Step Intervention Script. The essential steps of the intervention are written as an intervention script--a series of clearly described stepsto ensure teacher understanding and make implementation easier (Hawkins, Morrison, Musti-Rao Hawkins, 2008).
? Intervention Training. If the teacher requires training to carry out the intervention, that training has been arranged.
? Intervention Elements Negotiable vs. Non-Negotiable. The teacher knows all of the steps of the intervention. Additionally, the teacher knows which of the intervention steps are non-negotiable (they must be completed exactly as designed) and which are negotiable (the teacher has some latitude in how to carry out those steps) (Hawkins, Morrison, Musti-Rao Hawkins, 2008).
? Assistance With the Intervention. If the intervention cannot be implemented as designed for any reason (e.g., student absence, lack of materials, etc.), the teacher knows how to get assistance quickly to either fix the problem(s) to the current intervention or to change the intervention.
105Activity Verifying Teacher Understanding
Providing Teacher Support
- In your teams
- Review the checklist for verifying that teachers
understand all elements of the intervention and
actively support its use. - How will your school ensure that teachers will
understand and support academic interventions
designed to be implemented in the classroom?
Verifying Teacher Understanding Providing Teacher Support
Critical Item? Intervention Element
? Teacher Responsibility
? Teacher Acceptability.
? Step-by-Step Intervention Script.
? Intervention Training.
? Intervention Elements Negotiable vs. Non-Negotiable
? Assistance With the Intervention
106Documenting the Intervention Collecting Data Documenting the Intervention Collecting Data Documenting the Intervention Collecting Data
Interventions only have meaning if they are done within a larger data-based context. For example, interventions that lack baseline data, goal(s) for improvement, and a progress-monitoring plan are fatally flawed (Witt, VanDerHeyden Gilbertson, 2004). Interventions only have meaning if they are done within a larger data-based context. For example, interventions that lack baseline data, goal(s) for improvement, and a progress-monitoring plan are fatally flawed (Witt, VanDerHeyden Gilbertson, 2004). Interventions only have meaning if they are done within a larger data-based context. For example, interventions that lack baseline data, goal(s) for improvement, and a progress-monitoring plan are fatally flawed (Witt, VanDerHeyden Gilbertson, 2004).
Critical Item? Intervention Element Notes
? Intervention Documentation. The teacher understands and can manage all documentation required for this intervention (e.g., maintaining a log of intervention sessions, etc.).
? Checkup Date. Before the intervention begins, a future checkup date is selected to review the intervention to determine if it is successful. Time elapsing between the start of the intervention and the checkup date should be short enough to allow a timely review of the intervention but long enough to give the school sufficient time to judge with confidence whether the intervention worked.
? Baseline. Before the intervention begins, the teacher has collected information about the students baseline level of performance in the identified area(s) of academic concern (Witt, VanDerHeyden Gilbertson, 2004).
? Goal. Before the intervention begins, the teacher has set a specific goal for predicted student improvement to use as a minimum standard for success (Witt, VanDerHeyden Gilbertson, 2004). The goal is the expected student outcome by the checkup date if the intervention is successful.
? Progress-Monitoring. During the intervention, the teacher collects progress-monitoring data of sufficient quality and at a sufficient frequency to determine at the checkup date whether that intervention is successful (Witt, VanDerHeyden Gilbertson, 2004).
107Activity Documenting the Intervention
Collecting Data
- In your teams
- Consider the elements of intervention
documentation, data collection, and data
interpretation discussed here. - What steps can your school take to make sure
that data have a central focus when
interventionsare planned and implemented?
Documenting the Intervention Collecting Data Documenting the Intervention Collecting Data Documenting the Intervention Collecting Data
Critical Item? Intervention Element Notes
? Intervention Documentation.
? Checkup Date.
? Baseline.
? Goal.
? Progress-Monitoring.
108References
- Bergan, J. R. (1995). Evolution of a
problem-solving model of consultation. Journal of
Educational and Psychological Consultation, 6(2),
111-123. - Burns, M. K., Gibbons, K. A. (2008).
Implementing response-to-intervention in
elementary and secondary schools. Routledge New
York. - Burns, M. K., VanDerHeyden, A. M., Boice, C. H.
(2008). Best practices in intensive academic
interventions. In A. Thomas J. Grimes (Eds.),
Best practices in school psychology V
(pp.1151-1162). Bethesda, MD National
Association of School Psychologists. - Haring, N.G., Lovitt, T.C., Eaton, M.D.,
Hansen, C.L. (1978). The fourth R Research in
the classroom. Columbus, OH Charles E. Merrill
Publishing Co. - Hawkins, R. O., Morrison, J. Q., Musti-Rao, S.,
Hawkins, J. A. (2008). Treatment integrity for
academic interventions in real- world settings.
School Psychology Forum, 2(3), 1-15. - Kratochwill, T. R., Clements, M. A., Kalymon,
K. M. (2007). Response to intervention
Conceptual and methodological issues in
implementation. In Jimerson, S. R., Burns, M. K.,
VanDerHeyden, A. M. (Eds.), Handbook of
response to intervention The science and
practice of assessment and intervention. New
York Springer. - Skinner, C. H., Pappas, D. N., Davis, K. A.
(2005). Enhancing academic engagement Providing
opportunities for responding and influencing
students to choose to respond. Psychology in the
Schools, 42, 389-403. - Witt, J. C., VanDerHeyden, A. M., Gilbertson,
D. (2004). Troubleshooting behavioral
interventions. A systematic process for finding
and eliminating problems. School Psychology
Review, 33, 363-383. - Yeaton, W. M. Sechrest, L. (1981). Critical
dimensions in the choice and maintenance of
successful treatments Strength, integrity, and
effectiveness. Journal of Consulting and Clinical
Psychology, 49, 156-167.
109Activity Using the Academic Interventions
Critical Components Checklist
- In your teams
- Discuss the Academic Interventions Critical
Components Checklist. - How might your school use this checklist to
improve the quality of your buildings
interventions at Tiers 1, 2, and 3?
110Supplemental Interventions The Challenge of
Providing Tier 2/3 Support in Middle and High
Schools
111Secondary Students Should Interventions Be
Off-Level or Focus on Grade-Level Academics?
- There is a lack of consensus about how to
address the academic needs of students with
deficits in basic skills in secondary grades
(Espin Tindal, 1998). - Should the student be placed in remedial
instruction at a point of instructional match
to address those basic-skill deficits?
(Instruction is adjusted down to the student) - Or is time better spent providing the student
with compensatory strategies to learn grade-level
content and work around those basic-skill
deficits? (Student is brought up to current
instruction)
Source Espin, C. A., Tindal, G. (1998).
Curriculum-based measurement for secondary
students. In M. R. Shinn (Ed.) Advanced
applications of curriculum-based measurement. New
York Guilford Press.
112Remediating Academic Deficits The Widening
Curriculum Gap
Subject-Area Rdng Comprehension
Rdng-Basic Comprehension
Rdng Fluency
113Remediating Academic Deficits The Widening
Curriculum Gap
Subject-Area Rdng Comprehension
Rdng-Basic Comprehension
Rdng Fluency
114Remediating Academic Deficits The Widening
Curriculum Gap
Subject-Area Rdng Comprehension
Rdng-Basic Comprehension
Rdng Fluency
115Supplemental Interventions in Secondary Schools
The Challenge
- Research indicates that students do well in
targeted small-group interventions (4-7 students)
when the intervention treatment is closely
matched to those students academic needs (Burns
Gibbons, 2008). - However, in secondary schools
- students are sometimes grouped for remediation by
convenience rather than by presenting need.
Teachers instruct across a broad range of student
skills, diluting the positive impact of the
intervention. - students often present with a unique profile of
concerns that does not lend itself to placement
in a group intervention.
Source Burns, M. K., Gibbons, K. A. (2008).
Implementing response-to-intervention in
elementary and secondary schools Procedures to
assure scientific-based practices. New York
Routledge.
116Caution About Secondary Supplemental
Interventions Avoid the Homework Help Trap
- Group-based interventions are an efficient method
to deliver targeted academic support to students
(Burns Gibbons, 2008). - However, students should be matched to specific
research-based interventions that address their
specific needs. - RTI intervention support in secondary schools
should not take the form of unfocused homework
help or test preparation.
117Tier 2/3 Interventions Scheduling Strategies
RTI Scheduling Strategy Considerations
Schoolwide RTI Period. The school sets aside one period per day (e.g., 35-45 minutes) during which all students have the opportunity to receive appropriate academic support. Tier 2/3 students are provide