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Title: RtI%20Lab%20for%20Secondary%20Schools:%20Effective%20Academic%20Interventions%20for%20Struggling%20Students%20Jim%20Wright%20www.interventioncentral.org


1
RtI Lab for Secondary SchoolsEffective Academic
Interventions for Struggling StudentsJim
Wrightwww.interventioncentral.org
2
Workshop Agenda
3
Workshop PowerPoints and Related Resources
Available at
  • http//www.jimwrightonline.com/lake_county_ROE.ph
    p

4
RTI Assumption Struggling Students Are Typical
Until Proven Otherwise
  • RTI logic assumes that
  • A student who begins to struggle in general
    education is typical, and that
  • It is general educations responsibility to find
    the instructional strategies that will unlock the
    students learning potential
  • Only when the student shows through
    well-documented interventions that he or she has
    failed to respond to intervention does RTI
    begin to investigate the possibility that the
    student may have a learning disability or other
    special education condition.

5
Secondary Students Unique Challenges
  • Struggling learners in middle and high school
    may
  • Have significant deficits in basic academic
    skills
  • Lack higher-level problem-solving strategies and
    concepts
  • Present with issues of school motivation
  • Show social/emotional concerns that interfere
    with academics
  • Have difficulty with attendance
  • Are often in a process of disengaging from
    learning even as adults in school expect that
    those students will move toward being
    self-managing learners

6
RTI Pyramid of Interventions
7
Tier 1 (Classroom) Literacy Interventions for
Middle High Schools A Skill-Building Lab Jim
Wrightwww.interventioncentral.org
8
Promoting Literacy in Middle High School
Classrooms Three Elements
  • Explicit vocabulary instruction
  • Reading comprehension
  • Extended discussion

Source Kamil, M. L., Borman, G. D., Dole, J.,
Kral, C. C., Salinger, T., Torgesen, J. (2008).
Improving adolescent literacy Effective
classroom and intervention practices A practice
guide (NCEE 2008-4027). Washington, DC National
Center for Education Evaluation and Regional
Assistance, Institute of Education Sciences, U.S.
Department of Education. Retrieved from
http//ies.ed.gov/ncee/wwc.
9
RTI Secondary LiteracyExplicit Vocabulary
Instruction
10
Vocabulary Why This Instructional Goal is
Important
  • As vocabulary terms become more specialized in
    content area courses, students are less able to
    derive the meaning of unfamiliar words from
    context alone.
  • Students must instead learn vocabulary through
    more direct means, including having opportunities
    to explicitly memorize words and their
    definitions.
  • Students may require 12 to 17 meaningful
    exposures to a word to learn it.

11
Provide Dictionary Training
  • The student is trained to use an Internet lookup
    strategy to better understand dictionary or
    glossary definitions of key vocabulary items.
  • The student first looks up the word and its
    meaning(s) in the dictionary/glossary.
  • If necessary, the student isolates the specific
    word meaning that appears to be the appropriate
    match for the term as it appears in course texts
    and discussion.
  • The student goes to an Internet search engine
    (e.g., Google) and locates at least five text
    samples in which the term is used in context and
    appears to match the selected dictionary
    definition.

12
Promote Wide Reading
  • Students read widely in the content area, using
    texts that supplement and extend information
    supplied by the textbook. Wide reading results
    in substantial increases in student vocabulary
    over time due to incidental learning. To
    strengthen the positive impact of wide reading on
    vocabulary development, have student texts
    available that vary in difficulty and that are of
    high interest. Discuss readings in class.
    Experiment with ways to document student
    independent reading and integrate that wide
    reading into an effort grade for the course. If
    needed, build time into the students school
    schedule for supervised wide reading time.

13
Hold Read-Alouds
  • Select texts that supplement the course textbook
    and that illustrate central concepts and contain
    important vocabulary covered in the course. Read
    those texts aloud for 3 to 5 minutes per class
    session--while students follow along silently.
    Read-alouds provide students with additional
    exposure to vocabulary items in context. They can
    also lower the threshold of difficulty Students
    may be more likely to attempt to read an assigned
    text independently if they have already gotten a
    start in the text by listening to a more advanced
    reader read the first few pages aloud.
    Read-alouds can support other vocabulary-building
    activities such as guided discussion, vocabulary
    review, and wide reading.

14
Provide Regular In-Class Instruction and Review
of Vocabulary Terms, Definitions
  • Present important new vocabulary terms in class,
    along with student-friendly definitions. Provide
    example sentences to illustrate the use of the
    term. Assign students to write example sentences
    employing new vocabulary to illustrate their
    mastery of the terms.

15
Generate Possible Sentences
  • The teacher selects 6 to 8 challenging new
    vocabulary terms and 4 to 6 easier, more familiar
    vocabulary items relevant to the lesson.
    Introduce the vocabulary terms to the class. Have
    students write sentences that contain at least
    two words from the posted vocabulary list. Then
    write examples of student sentences on the board
    until all words from the list have been used.
    After the assigned reading, review the possible
    sentences that were previously generated.
    Evaluate as a group whether, based on the
    passage, the sentence is possible (true) in its
    current form. If needed, have the group recommend
    how to change the sentence to make it possible.

16
Enhance Vocabulary Instruction Through Use of
Graphic Organizers or Displays A Sampling
  • Teachers can use graphic displays to structure
    their vocabulary discussions and activities
    (Boardman et al., 2008 Fisher, 2007 Texas
    Reading Initiative, 2002).

17
4-Square Graphic Display
  • The student divides a page into four quadrants.
    In the upper left section, the student writes the
    target word. In the lower left section, the
    student writes the word definition. In the upper
    right section, the student generates a list of
    examples that illustrate the term, and in the
    lower right section, the student writes
    non-examples (e.g., terms that are the opposite
    of the target vocabulary word).

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Semantic Word Definition Map
  • The graphic display contains sections in which
    the student writes the word, its definition
    (what is this?), additional details that extend
    its meaning (What is it like?), as well as a
    listing of examples and non-examples (e.g.,
    terms that are the opposite of the target
    vocabulary word).

20
Word Definition Map Example
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Semantic Feature Analysis
  • A target vocabulary term is selected for
    analysis in this grid-like graphic display.
    Possible features or properties of the term
    appear along the top margin, while examples of
    the term are listed ion the left margin. The
    student considers the vocabulary term and its
    definition. Then the student evaluates each
    example of the term to determine whether it does
    or does not match each possible term property or
    element.

23
Semantic Feature Analysis Example
  • VOCABULARY TERM TRANSPORTATION

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25
Comparison/Contrast (Venn) Diagram
  • Two terms are listed and defined. For each term,
    the student brainstorms qualities or properties
    or examples that illustrate the terms meaning.
    Then the student groups those qualities,
    properties, and examples into 3 sections
  • items unique to Term 1
  • items unique to Term 2
  • items shared by both terms

26
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27
Team Activity Evaluate Academic Content-Area
Vocabulary Strategies
  • Review the Troubleshooting Tips and Building
    Capacity sections of the intervention write-up.
  • Share your thoughts about how you would promote
    the use of these strategies in your classrooms.
  • Devise at least ONE strategy to move forward in
    getting teachers to expand their skills in this
    intervention area.

28
RTI Secondary LiteracyExtended Discussion
29
Extended Discussions Why This Instructional Goal
is Important
  • Extended, guided group discussion is a powerful
    means to help students to learn vocabulary and
    advanced concepts. Discussion can also model for
    students various thinking processes and
    cognitive strategies (Kamil et al. 2008, p. 22).
    To be effective, guided discussion should go
    beyond students answering a series of factual
    questions posed by the teacher Quality
    discussions are typically open-ended and
    exploratory in nature, allowing for multiple
    points of view (Kamil et al., 2008).
  • When group discussion is used regularly and
    well in instruction, students show increased
    growth in literacy skills. Content-area teachers
    can use it to demonstrate the habits of mind
    and patterns of thinking of experts in various
    their discipline e.g., historians,
    mathematicians, chemists, engineers, literacy
    critics, etc.

30
Use a Standard Protocol to Structure Extended
Discussions
  • Good extended classwide discussions elicit a
    wide range of student opinions, subject
    individual viewpoints to critical scrutiny in a
    supportive manner, put forth alternative views,
    and bring closure by summarizing the main points
    of the discussion. Teachers can use a simple
    structure to effectively and reliably organize
    their discussions

31
Standard Protocol Discussion Format
  1. Pose questions to the class that require students
    to explain their positions and their reasoning .
  2. When needed, think aloud as the discussion
    leader to model good reasoning practices (e.g.,
    taking a clear stand on a topic).
  3. Supportively challenge student views by offering
    possible counter arguments.
  4. Single out and mention examples of effective
    student reasoning.
  5. Avoid being overly directive the purpose of
    extended discussions is to more fully investigate
    and think about complex topics.
  6. Sum up the general ground covered in the
    discussion and highlight the main ideas covered.

32
Team Activity Evaluate Extended Discussion
Strategies
  • Review the Troubleshooting Tips and Building
    Capacity sections of the intervention write-up.
  • Share your thoughts about how you would promote
    the use of this strategy in your classrooms.
  • Devise at least ONE strategy to move forward in
    getting teachers to expand their skills in this
    intervention area.

33
RTI Secondary LiteracyReading Comprehension
34
Reading Comprehension Why This Instructional
Goal is Important
  • Students require strong reading comprehension
    skills to succeed in challenging content-area
    classes.At present, there is no clear evidence
    that any one reading comprehension instructional
    technique is clearly superior to others. In fact,
    it appears that students benefit from being
    taught any self-directed practice that prompts
    them to engage more actively in understanding the
    meaning of text (Kamil et al., 2008).

35
Assist Students in Setting Content Goals for
Reading
  • Students are more likely to be motivated to
    read--and to read more closelyif they have
    specific content-related reading goals in mind.
    At the start of a reading assignment, for
    example, the instructor has students state what
    questions they might seek to answer or what
    topics they would like to learn more about in
    their reading. The student or teacher writes down
    these questions. After students have completed
    the assigned reading, they review their original
    questions and share what they have learned (e.g.,
    through discussion in large group or cooperative
    learning group, or even as a written assignment).

36
Teach Question-Answer Relationships (QARs)
  • RIGHT THERE questions are fact-based and can be
    found in a single sentence, often accompanied by
    'clue' words that also appear in the question.
  • THINK AND SEARCH questions can be answered from
    the text--but answers must be pieced together by
    scanning the text and making connections between
    different pieces of factual information.
  • AUTHOR AND YOU questions require that students
    take information or opinions that appear in the
    text and combine them with the reader's own
    experiences or opinions.
  • ON MY OWN questions are based on the students'
    own experiences and do not require knowledge of
    the text to answer.

37
Team Activity Classroom Literacy Strategies
Middle and High School
  • At your table Think of the content-area teacher
    who may believe that it is not his or her job
    to promote literacy skills through whole-group,
    small-group, or individual strategies.
  • How would you attempt to change that teachers
    mind?
  • How can you help a reluctant teacher to adopt
    core-instruction or intervention strategies like
    those presented here?

38
Promoting Student Reading Comprehension Fix-Up
SkillsJim Wrightwww.interventioncentral.org
39
Reading Comprehension Fix-Up Skills A Toolkit
  • Good readers continuously monitor their
    understanding of informational text. When
    necessary, they also take steps to improve their
    understanding of text through use of reading
    comprehension fix-up skills.
  • Presented here are a series of fix-up skill
    strategies that can help struggling students to
    better understand difficult reading assignments

40
Reading Comprehension Fix-Up Skills A Toolkit
(Cont.)
  • Core Instruction Providing Main Idea Practice
    through Partner Retell (Carnine Carnine,
    2004). Students in a group or class are assigned
    a text selection to read silently. Students are
    then paired off, with one student assigned the
    role of reteller and the other appointed as
    listener. The reteller recounts the main idea
    to the listener, who can comment or ask
    questions. The teacher then states the main idea
    to the class. Next, the reteller locates two key
    details from the reading that support the main
    idea and shares these with the listener. At the
    end of the activity, the teacher does a spot
    check by randomly calling on one or more students
    in the listener role and asking them to recap
    what information was shared by the reteller.

41
Reading Comprehension Fix-Up Skills A Toolkit
(Cont.)
  • Accommodation Developing a Bank of Multiple
    Passages to Present Challenging Concepts (Hedin
    Conderman, 2010 Kamil et al., 2008 Texas
    Reading Initiative, 2002). The teacher notes
    which course concepts, cognitive strategies, or
    other information will likely present the
    greatest challenge to students. For these
    challenge topics, the teacher selects
    alternative readings that present the same
    general information and review the same key
    vocabulary as the course text but that are more
    accessible to struggling readers (e.g., with
    selections written at an easier reading level or
    that use graphics to visually illustrate
    concepts). These alternative selections are
    organized into a bank that students can access as
    a source of wide reading material.

42
Reading Comprehension Fix-Up Skills A Toolkit
(Cont.)
  • Student Strategy Promoting Understanding
    Building Endurance through Reading-Reflection
    Pauses (Hedin Conderman, 2010). The student
    decides on a reading interval (e.g., every four
    sentences every 3 minutes at the end of each
    paragraph). At the end of each interval, the
    student pauses briefly to recall the main points
    of the reading. If the student has questions or
    is uncertain about the content, the student
    rereads part or all of the section just read.
    This strategy is useful both for students who
    need to monitor their understanding as well as
    those who benefit from brief breaks when engaging
    in intensive reading as a means to build up
    endurance as attentive readers.

43
Reading Comprehension Fix-Up Skills A Toolkit
(Cont.)
  • Student Strategy Identifying or Constructing
    Main Idea Sentences (Davey McBride, 1986
    Rosenshine, Meister Chapman, 1996). For each
    paragraph in an assigned reading, the student
    either (a) highlights the main idea sentence or
    (b) highlights key details and uses them to write
    a gist sentence. The student then writes the
    main idea of that paragraph on an index card. On
    the other side of the card, the student writes a
    question whose answer is that paragraphs main
    idea sentence. This stack of main idea cards
    becomes a useful tool to review assigned
    readings.

44
Reading Comprehension Fix-Up Skills A Toolkit
(Cont.)
  • Student Strategy Restructuring Paragraphs with
    Main Idea First to Strengthen Rereads (Hedin
    Conderman, 2010). The student highlights or
    creates a main idea sentence for each paragraph
    in the assigned reading. When rereading each
    paragraph of the selection, the student (1) reads
    the main idea sentence or student-generated
    gist sentence first (irrespective of where that
    sentence actually falls in the paragraph) (2)
    reads the remainder of the paragraph, and (3)
    reflects on how the main idea relates to the
    paragraph content.

45
Reading Comprehension Fix-Up Skills A Toolkit
(Cont.)
  • Student Strategy Summarizing Readings (Boardman
    et al., 2008). The student is taught to summarize
    readings into main ideas and essential
    details--stripped of superfluous content. The act
    of summarizing longer readings can promote
    understanding and retention of content while the
    summarized text itself can be a useful study
    tool.

46
Reading Comprehension Fix-Up Skills A Toolkit
(Cont.)
  • Student Strategy Linking Pronouns to Referents
    (Hedin Conderman, 2010). Some readers lose the
    connection between pronouns and the nouns that
    they refer to (known as referents)especially
    when reading challenging text. The student is
    encouraged to circle pronouns in the reading, to
    explicitly identify each pronouns referent, and
    (optionally) to write next to the pronoun the
    name of its referent. For example, the student
    may add the referent to a pronoun in this
    sentence from a biology text The Cambrian
    Period is the first geological age that has large
    numbers of multi-celled organisms associated with
    it Cambrian Period.

47
Reading Comprehension Fix-Up Skills A Toolkit
(Cont.)
  • Student Strategy Apply Vocabulary Fix-Up
    Skills for Unknown Words (Klingner Vaughn,
    1999). When confronting an unknown word in a
    reading selection, the student applies the
    following vocabulary fix-up skills
  • Read the sentence again.
  • Read the sentences before and after the problem
    sentence for clues to the words meaning.
  • See if there are prefixes or suffixes in the word
    that can give clues to meaning.
  • Break the word up by syllables and look for
    smaller words within.

48
Reading Comprehension Fix-Up Skills A Toolkit
(Cont.)
  • Student Strategy Compiling a Vocabulary Journal
    from Course Readings (Hedin Conderman, 2010).
    The student highlights new or unfamiliar
    vocabulary from course readings. The student
    writes each term into a vocabulary journal, using
    a standard sentence-stem format e.g., Mitosis
    means or A chloroplast is. If the student is
    unable to generate a definition for a vocabulary
    term based on the course reading, he or she
    writes the term into the vocabulary journal
    without definition and then applies other
    strategies to define the term e.g., look up the
    term in a dictionary use Google to locate two
    examples of the term being used correctly in
    context ask the instructor, etc.).

49
Reading Comprehension Fix-Up Skills A Toolkit
(Cont.)
  • Student Strategy Encouraging Student Use of
    Text Enhancements (Hedin Conderman, 2010). Text
    enhancements can be used to tag important
    vocabulary terms, key ideas, or other reading
    content. If working with photocopied material,
    the student can use a highlighter to note key
    ideas or vocabulary. Another enhancement strategy
    is the lasso and rope techniqueusing a pen or
    pencil to circle a vocabulary term and then
    drawing a line that connects that term to its
    underlined definition. If working from a
    textbook, the student can cut sticky notes into
    strips. These strips can be inserted in the book
    as pointers to text of interest. They can also be
    used as temporary labelse.g., for writing a
    vocabulary term and its definition.

50
Reading Comprehension Fix-Up Skills A Toolkit
(Cont.)
  • Student Strategy Reading Actively Through Text
    Annotation (Harris, 1990 Sarkisian et al.,
    2003). Students are likely to increase their
    retention of information when they interact
    actively with their reading by jotting comments
    in the margin of the text. Using photocopies, the
    student is taught to engage in an ongoing
    'conversation' with the writer by recording a
    running series of brief comments in the margins
    of the text. The student may write annotations to
    record opinions about points raised by the
    writer, questions triggered by the reading, or
    unknown vocabulary words.

51
Team Activity Promoting Reading Comprehsnion
Fix-Up Skills in Middle and High Schools
  • At your table
  • Consider the ideas included in the Reading
    Comprehension Fix-Up Skills (pp. 19-20) section
    of the Strategies handout.
  • What are some ideas that your school might
    consider to promote the use of these strategies
    across classrooms, grade levels, and/or within
    departments?

52
Tier 1 The Key Role of Classroom Teachers in
RTIJim Wrightwww.interventioncentral.org
53
RTI Pyramid of Interventions
54
Tier 1 Core Instruction
  • Tier I core instruction
  • Is universalavailable to all students.
  • Can be delivered within classrooms or throughout
    the school.
  • Is an ongoing process of developing strong
    classroom instructional practices to reach the
    largest number of struggling learners.
  • All children have access to Tier 1
    instruction/interventions. Teachers have the
    capability to use those strategies without
    requiring outside assistance.
  • Tier 1 instruction encompasses
  • The schools core curriculum.
  • Al published or teacher-made materials used to
    deliver that curriculum.
  • Teacher use of whole-group teaching
    management strategies.
  • Tier I instruction addresses this question Are
    strong classroom instructional strategies
    sufficient to help the student to achieve
    academic success?

55
Tier I (Classroom) Intervention
  • Tier 1 intervention
  • Targets red flag students who are not
    successful with core instruction alone.
  • Uses evidence-based strategies to address
    student academic or behavioral concerns.
  • Must be feasible to implement given the resources
    available in the classroom.
  • Tier I intervention addresses the question Does
    the student make adequate progress when the
    instructor uses specific academic or behavioral
    strategies matched to the presenting concern?

56
The Key Role of Classroom Teachers in RTI 6 Steps
  1. The teacher defines the student academic or
    behavioral problem clearly.
  2. The teacher decides on the best explanation for
    why the problem is occurring.
  3. The teacher selects evidence-based
    interventions.
  4. The teacher documents the students Tier 1
    intervention plan.
  5. The teacher monitors the students response
    (progress) to the intervention plan.
  6. The teacher knows what the next steps are when a
    student fails to make adequate progress with Tier
    1 interventions alone.

57
Engaging the Reluctant Teacher 7 Reasons Why
Instructors May Resist Implementing Classroom RTI
InterventionsJim Wrightwww.interventioncentral.
org
58
Teacher Tolerance as an Indicator of RTI
Intervention Capacity
  • I call the range of students whom teachers
    come to view as adequately responsive i.e.,
    teachable as the tolerance those who are
    perceived to be outside the tolerance are those
    for whom teachers seek additional resources. The
    term tolerance is used to indicate that
    teachers form a permissible boundary on their
    measurement (judgments) in the same sense as a
    confidence interval. In this case, the teacher
    actively measures the distribution of
    responsiveness in her class by processing
    information from a series of teaching trials and
    perceives some range of students as within the
    tolerance. (Gerber, 2002)

Source Gerber, M. M. (2003). Teachers are still
the test Limitations of response to instruction
strategies for identifying children with learning
disabilities. Paper presented at the National
Research Center on Learning Disabilities
Responsiveness-to-Intervention Symposium, Kansas
City, MO.
59
RTI Teacher Reluctance
  • The willingness of teachers to implement
    interventions is essential in any school to the
    success of the RTI model. Yet general-education
    teachers may not always see themselves as
    interventionists and indeed may even resist the
    expectation that they will provide individualized
    interventions as a routine part of their
    classroom practice (Walker, 2004).
  • It should be remembered, however, that teachers
    reluctance to accept elements of RTI may be based
    on very good reasons. Here are some common
    reasons that teachers might be reluctant to
    accept their role as RTI intervention first
    responders

60
Engaging the Reluctant Teacher 7 Reasons Why
Instructors May Resist Implementing Classroom RTI
Interventions
  • Lack of Skills. Teachers lack the skills
    necessary to successfully implement academic or
    behavioral interventions in their content-area
    classrooms (Fisher, 2007 Kamil et al., 2008).
  • Not My Job. Teachers define their job as
    providing content-area instruction. They do not
    believe that providing classwide or individual
    academic and behavioral interventions falls
    within their job description (Kamil et al., 2008).

61
Engaging the Reluctant Teacher 7 Reasons Why
Instructors May Resist Implementing Classroom RTI
Interventions(Cont.)
  • No Time. Teachers do not believe that they have
    sufficient time available in classroom
    instruction to implement academic or behavioral
    interventions (Kamil et al., 2008 Walker,
    2004).
  • Insufficient Payoff. Teachers lack confidence
    that there will be an adequate instructional
    pay-off if they put classwide or individual
    academic or behavioral interventions into place
    in their content-area classroom (Kamil et al.,
    2008).

62
Engaging the Reluctant Teacher 7 Reasons Why
Instructors May Resist Implementing Classroom RTI
Interventions (Cont.)
  • Loss of Classroom Control. Teachers worry that if
    they depart from their standard instructional
    practices to adopt new classwide or individual
    academic or behavior intervention strategies,
    they may lose behavioral control of the classroom
    (Kamil et al., 2008).
  • Undeserving Students. Teachers are unwilling to
    invest the required effort to provide academic or
    behavioral interventions for unmotivated students
    (Walker, 2004) because they would rather put that
    time into providing additional attention to
    well-behaved, motivated students who are more
    deserving.

63
Engaging the Reluctant Teacher 7 Reasons Why
Instructors May Resist Implementing Classroom RTI
Interventions (Cont.)
  • The Magic of Special Education. Content-area
    teachers regard special education services as
    magic (Martens, 1993). According to this view,
    interventions provided to struggling students in
    the general-education classroom alone will be
    inadequate, and only special education services
    have the power to truly benefit those students.

64
Engaging the Reluctant Teacher Seven Reasons Why
Instructors May Resist Implementing Classroom RTI
Literacy Interventions
  1. Lack of Skills. Teachers lack the skills
    necessary to successfully implement academic or
    behavioral interventions in their content-area
    classrooms.
  2. Not My Job. Teachers define their job as
    providing content-area instruction. They do not
    believe that providing classwide or individual
    academic and behavioral interventions falls
    within their job description.
  3. No Time. Teachers do not believe that they have
    sufficient time available in classroom
    instruction to implement academic or behavioral
    interventions.
  4. Insufficient Payoff. Teachers lack confidence
    that there will be an adequate instructional
    pay-off if they put classwide or individual
    academic or behavioral interventions into place
    in their content-area classroom.
  5. Loss of Classroom Control. Teachers worry that if
    they depart from their standard instructional
    practices to adopt new classwide or individual
    academic or behavior intervention strategies,
    they may lose behavioral control of the
    classroom.
  6. Undeserving Students. Teachers are unwilling to
    invest the required effort to provide academic or
    behavioral interventions for unmotivated students
    because they would rather put that time into
    providing additional attention to well-behaved,
    motivated students who are more deserving.
  7. The Magic of Special Education. Content-area
    teachers regard special education services as
    magic. According to this view, interventions
    provided to struggling students in the
    general-education classroom alone will be
    inadequate, and only special education services
    have the power to truly benefit those students.

65
Building Teacher Capacity to Deliver Tier 1
Interventions An 8-Step Checklist Jim
Wrightwww.interventioncentral.org
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Table Activity Building Teacher Tier 1
Intervention Capacity (Support Materials pp.
20-26)
  • At your tables
  • Review the 8-step process presented in this
    workshop for developing teacher capacity to do
    classroom interventions.
  • Discuss the steps that you would take to
    implement this process in your own middle or high
    school.

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RTI WritingInstruction Interventions Jim
Wrightwww.interventioncentral.org
79
  • "If all the grammarians in the world were placed
    end to end, it would be a good thing."
  • Oscar Wilde

80
Graham, S., Perin, D. (2007). Writing next
Effective strategies to improve writing of
adolescents in middle and high schools A report
to Carnegie Corporation of New York. Washington,
DC Alliance for Excellent Education. Retrieved
from http//www.all4ed.org/files/WritingNext.pdf
81
The Effect of Grammar Instruction as an
Independent Activity
  • Grammar instruction in the studies reviewed
    for the Writing Next report involved the
    explicit and systematic teaching of the parts of
    speech and structure of sentences. The
    meta-analysis found an effect for this type of
    instruction for students across the full range of
    ability, but surprisingly, this effect was
    negativeSuch findings raise serious questions
    about some educators enthusiasm for traditional
    grammar instruction as a focus of writing
    instruction for adolescents.Overall, the
    findings on grammar instruction suggest that,
    although teaching grammar is important,
    alternative procedures, such as sentence
    combining, are more effective than traditional
    approaches for improving the quality of students
    writing. p. 21

Source Graham, S., Perin, D. (2007). Writing
next Effective strategies to improve writing of
adolescents in middle and high schools A report
to Carnegie Corporation of New York. Washington,
DC Alliance for Excellent Education.
82
  • Elements of effective writing instruction for
    adolescents
  • Writing Process (Effect Size 0.82) Students
    are taught a process for planning, revising, and
    editing.
  • Summarizing (Effect Size 0.82) Students are
    taught methods to identify key points, main ideas
    from readings to write summaries of source texts.
  • Cooperative Learning Activities (Collaborative
    Writing) (Effect Size 0.75) Students are
    placed in pairs or groups with learning
    activities that focus on collaborative use of the
    writing process.
  • Goal-Setting (Effect Size 0.70) Students set
    specific product goals for their writing and
    then check their attainment of those
    self-generated goals.

Source Graham, S., Perin, D. (2007). Writing
next Effective strategies to improve writing of
adolescents in middle and high schools A report
to Carnegie Corporation of New York. Washington,
DC Alliance for Excellent Education. Retrieved
from http//www.all4ed.org/files/WritingNext.pdf
83
  • Elements of effective writing instruction for
    adolescents
  • Writing Processors (Effect Size 0.55) Students
    have access to computers/word processors in the
    writing process.
  • Sentence Combining (Effect Size 0.50) Students
    take part in instructional activities that
    require the combination or embedding of simpler
    sentences (e.g., Noun-Verb-Object) to generate
    more advanced, complex sentences.
  • Prewriting (Effect Size 0.32) Students learn
    to select, develop, or organize ideas to
    incorporate into their writing by participating
    in structured pre-writing activities.
  • Inquiry Activities (Effect Size 0.32) Students
    become actively engaged researchers, collecting
    and analyzing information to guide the ideas and
    content for writing assignments.

Source Graham, S., Perin, D. (2007). Writing
next Effective strategies to improve writing of
adolescents in middle and high schools A report
to Carnegie Corporation of New York. Washington,
DC Alliance for Excellent Education. Retrieved
from http//www.all4ed.org/files/WritingNext.pdf
84
  • Elements of effective writing instruction for
    adolescents
  • Process Writing (Effect Size 0.32) Writing
    instruction is taught in a workshop format that
    stresses extended writing opportunities,
    writing for authentic audiences, personalized
    instruction, and cycles of writing (Graham
    Perin, 2007 p. 4).
  • Use of Writing Models (Effect Size 0.25)
    Students read and discuss models of good writing
    and use them as exemplars for their own writing.
  • Writing to Learn Content (Effect Size 0.23)
    The instructor incorporates writing activities as
    a means to have students learn content material.

Source Graham, S., Perin, D. (2007). Writing
next Effective strategies to improve writing of
adolescents in middle and high schools A report
to Carnegie Corporation of New York. Washington,
DC Alliance for Excellent Education. Retrieved
from http//www.all4ed.org/files/WritingNext.pdf
85
  • "The difference between the right word and the
    almost right word is the difference between
    lightning and the lightning bug."
  • Mark Twain

86
  • "Your manuscript is both good and original. But
    the part that is good is not original, and the
    part that is original is not good."
  • Samuel Johnson

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Sentence Combining
  • Students with poor writing skills often write
    sentences that lack syntactic maturity. Their
    sentences often follow a simple, stereotyped
    format. A promising approach to teach students
    use of diverse sentence structures is through
    sentence combining. In sentence combining,
    students are presented with kernel sentences and
    given explicit instruction in how to weld these
    kernel sentences into more diverse sentence types
    either
  • by using connecting words to combine multiple
    sentences into one or
  • by isolating key information from an otherwise
    superfluous sentence and embedding that important
    information into the base sentence.

Sources Saddler, B. (2005). Sentence combining
A sentence-level writing intervention. The
Reading Teacher, 58, 468-471. Strong, W. (1986).
Creative approaches to sentence combining.
Urbana, OL ERIC Clearinghouse on Reading and
Communication Skill National Council of
Teachers of English.
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Formatting Sentence Combining Examples
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Table Activity Sentence Combining
  • At your tables
  • Discuss the sentence-combining strategy discussed
    today.
  • What are ways that content-area teachers can use
    this strategy to both help struggling writers AND
    reinforce course content?

93
Improving the Integrity of Academic Interventions
Through a Critical-Components Pre-Flight Check
Jim Wrightwww.interventioncentral.org
94
Academic Interventions Critical Components
Checklist
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Academic Interventions Critical Components
Checklist
  • This checklist summarizes the essential
    components of academic interventions. When
    preparing a students Tier 1, 2, or 3 academic
    intervention plan, use this document as a
    pre-flight checklist to ensure that the
    academic intervention is of high quality, is
    sufficiently strong to address the identified
    student problem, is fully understood and
    supported by the teacher, and can be implemented
    with integrity. NOTE While the checklist refers
    to the teacher as the interventionist, it can
    also be used as a guide to ensure the quality of
    interventions implemented by non-instructional
    personnel, adult volunteers, parents, and peer
    (student) tutors.

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Allocating Sufficient Contact Time Assuring Appropriate Student-Teacher Ratio Allocating Sufficient Contact Time Assuring Appropriate Student-Teacher Ratio Allocating Sufficient Contact Time Assuring Appropriate Student-Teacher Ratio
The cumulative time set aside for an intervention and the amount of direct teacher contact are two factors that help to determine that interventions strength (Yeaton Sechrest, 1981). The cumulative time set aside for an intervention and the amount of direct teacher contact are two factors that help to determine that interventions strength (Yeaton Sechrest, 1981). The cumulative time set aside for an intervention and the amount of direct teacher contact are two factors that help to determine that interventions strength (Yeaton Sechrest, 1981).
Critical Item? Intervention Element Notes
? Time Allocated. The time set aside for the intervention is appropriate for the type and level of student problem (Burns Gibbons, 2008 Kratochwill, Clements Kalymon, 2007). When evaluating whether the amount of time allocated is adequate, consider Length of each intervention session. Frequency of sessions (e.g.., daily, 3 times per week) Duration of intervention period (e.g., 6 instructional weeks)
? Student-Teacher Ratio. The student receives sufficient contact from the teacher or other person delivering the intervention to make that intervention effective. NOTE Generally, supplemental intervention groups should be limited to 6-7 students (Burns Gibbons, 2008).
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Matching the Intervention to the Student Problem Matching the Intervention to the Student Problem Matching the Intervention to the Student Problem
Academic interventions are not selected at random. First, the student academic problem(s) is defined clearly and in detail. Then, the likely explanations for the academic problem(s) are identified to understand which intervention(s) are likely to helpand which should be avoided. Academic interventions are not selected at random. First, the student academic problem(s) is defined clearly and in detail. Then, the likely explanations for the academic problem(s) are identified to understand which intervention(s) are likely to helpand which should be avoided. Academic interventions are not selected at random. First, the student academic problem(s) is defined clearly and in detail. Then, the likely explanations for the academic problem(s) are identified to understand which intervention(s) are likely to helpand which should be avoided.
Critical Item? Intervention Element Notes
? Problem Definition. The student academic problem(s) to be addressed in the intervention are defined in clear, specific, measureable terms (Bergan, 1995 Witt, VanDerHeyden Gilbertson, 2004). The full problem definition describes Conditions. Describe the environmental conditions or task demands in place when the academic problem is observed. Problem Description. Describe the actual observable academic behavior in which the student is engaged. Include rate, accuracy, or other quantitative information of student performance. Typical or Expected Level of Performance. Provide a typical or expected performance criterion for this skill or behavior. Typical or expected academic performance can be calculated using a variety of sources,
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Matching the Intervention to the Student Problem (Cont.) Matching the Intervention to the Student Problem (Cont.) Matching the Intervention to the Student Problem (Cont.)
Critical Item? Intervention Element Notes
? Appropriate Target. Selected intervention(s) are appropriate for the identified student problem(s) (Burns, VanDerHeyden Boice, 2008). TIP Use the Instructional Hierarchy (Haring et al., 1978) to select academic interventions according to the four stages of learning Acquisition. The student has begun to learn how to complete the target skill correctly but is not yet accurate in the skill. Interventions should improve accuracy. Fluency. The student is able to complete the target skill accurately but works slowly. Interventions should increase the students speed of responding (fluency) as well as to maintain accuracy. Generalization. The student may have acquired the target skill but does not typically use it in the full range of appropriate situations or settings. Or the student may confuse the target skill with similar skills. Interventions should get the student to use the skill in the widest possible range of settings and situations, or to accurately discriminate between the target skill and similar skills. Adaptation. The student is not yet able to modify or adapt an existing skill to fit novel task-demands or situations. Interventions should help the student to identify key concepts or elements from previously learned skills that can be adapted to the new demands or situations.
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Matching the Intervention to the Student Problem (Cont.) Matching the Intervention to the Student Problem (Cont.) Matching the Intervention to the Student Problem (Cont.)
Critical Item? Intervention Element Notes
? Cant Do/Wont Do Check. The teacher has determined whether the student problem is primarily a skill or knowledge deficit (cant do) or whether student motivation plays a main or supporting role in academic underperformance (wont do). If motivation appears to be a significant factor contributing to the problem, the intervention plan includes strategies to engage the student (e.g., high interest learning activities rewards/incentives increased student choice in academic assignments, etc.) (Skinner, Pappas Davis, 2005 Witt, VanDerHeyden Gilbertson, 2004).
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Activity Matching the Intervention to the
Student Problem
  • Consider these critical aspects of academic
    intervention
  • Clear and specific problem-identification
    statement (Conditions, Problem Description,
    Typical/Expected Level of Performance).
  • Appropriate intervention target (e.g., selected
    intervention is appropriately matched to
    Acquisition, Fluency, Generalization, or
    Adaptation phase of Instructional Hierarchy).
  • Cant Do/Wont Do Check (Clarification of whether
    motivation plays a significant role in student
    academic underperformance).
  • What questions do you have about applying any of
    these concepts when planning classroom
    interventions?

102
Incorporating Effective Instructional Elements Incorporating Effective Instructional Elements Incorporating Effective Instructional Elements
These effective building blocks of instruction are well-known and well-supported by the research. They should be considered when selecting or creating any academic intervention. These effective building blocks of instruction are well-known and well-supported by the research. They should be considered when selecting or creating any academic intervention. These effective building blocks of instruction are well-known and well-supported by the research. They should be considered when selecting or creating any academic intervention.
Critical Item? Intervention Element Notes
? Explicit Instruction. Student skills have been broken down into manageable and deliberately sequenced steps and the teacher provided overt strategies for students to learn and practice new skills (Burns, VanDerHeyden Boice, 2008, p.1153).
? Appropriate Level of Challenge. The student experienced sufficient success in the academic task(s) to shape learning in the desired direction as well as to maintain student motivation (Burns, VanDerHeyden Boice, 2008).
? Active Engagement. The intervention ensures that the student is engaged in active accurate responding (Skinner, Pappas Davis, 2005).at a rate frequent enough to capture student attention and to optimize effective learning.
? Performance Feedback. The student receives prompt performance feedback about the work completed (Burns, VanDerHeyden Boice, 2008).
? Maintenance of Academic Standards. If the intervention includes any accommodations to better support the struggling learner (e.g., preferential seating, breaking a longer assignment into smaller chunks), those accommodations do not substantially lower the academic standards against which the student is to be evaluated and are not likely to reduce the students rate of learning (Skinner, Pappas Davis, 2005).
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Activity Incorporating Effective Instructional
Elements
  • Think about the effective instructional elements
    reviewed in this workshop.
  • How can teachers ensure that all effective
    instructional elements are included in academic
    interventions?

Incorporating Effective Instructional Elements Incorporating Effective Instructional Elements Incorporating Effective Instructional Elements
Critical Item? Intervention Element Notes
? Explicit Instruction.
? Appropriate Level of Challenge.
? Active Engagement..
? Performance Feedback.
? Maintenance of Academic Standards.
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Verifying Teacher Understanding Providing Teacher Support Verifying Teacher Understanding Providing Teacher Support Verifying Teacher Understanding Providing Teacher Support
The teacher is an active agent in the intervention, with primary responsibility for putting it into practice in a busy classroom. It is important, then, that the teacher fully understands how to do the intervention, believes that he or she can do it, and knows whom to seek out if there are problems with the intervention. The teacher is an active agent in the intervention, with primary responsibility for putting it into practice in a busy classroom. It is important, then, that the teacher fully understands how to do the intervention, believes that he or she can do it, and knows whom to seek out if there are problems with the intervention. The teacher is an active agent in the intervention, with primary responsibility for putting it into practice in a busy classroom. It is important, then, that the teacher fully understands how to do the intervention, believes that he or she can do it, and knows whom to seek out if there are problems with the intervention.
Critical Item? Intervention Element Notes
? Teacher Responsibility. The teacher understands his or her responsibility to implement the academic intervention(s) with integrity.
? Teacher Acceptability. The teacher states that he or she finds the academic intervention feasible and acceptable for the identified student problem.
? Step-by-Step Intervention Script. The essential steps of the intervention are written as an intervention script--a series of clearly described stepsto ensure teacher understanding and make implementation easier (Hawkins, Morrison, Musti-Rao Hawkins, 2008).
? Intervention Training. If the teacher requires training to carry out the intervention, that training has been arranged.
? Intervention Elements Negotiable vs. Non-Negotiable. The teacher knows all of the steps of the intervention. Additionally, the teacher knows which of the intervention steps are non-negotiable (they must be completed exactly as designed) and which are negotiable (the teacher has some latitude in how to carry out those steps) (Hawkins, Morrison, Musti-Rao Hawkins, 2008).
? Assistance With the Intervention. If the intervention cannot be implemented as designed for any reason (e.g., student absence, lack of materials, etc.), the teacher knows how to get assistance quickly to either fix the problem(s) to the current intervention or to change the intervention.
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Activity Verifying Teacher Understanding
Providing Teacher Support
  • In your teams
  • Review the checklist for verifying that teachers
    understand all elements of the intervention and
    actively support its use.
  • How will your school ensure that teachers will
    understand and support academic interventions
    designed to be implemented in the classroom?

Verifying Teacher Understanding Providing Teacher Support
Critical Item? Intervention Element
? Teacher Responsibility
? Teacher Acceptability.
? Step-by-Step Intervention Script.
? Intervention Training.
? Intervention Elements Negotiable vs. Non-Negotiable
? Assistance With the Intervention
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Documenting the Intervention Collecting Data Documenting the Intervention Collecting Data Documenting the Intervention Collecting Data
Interventions only have meaning if they are done within a larger data-based context. For example, interventions that lack baseline data, goal(s) for improvement, and a progress-monitoring plan are fatally flawed (Witt, VanDerHeyden Gilbertson, 2004). Interventions only have meaning if they are done within a larger data-based context. For example, interventions that lack baseline data, goal(s) for improvement, and a progress-monitoring plan are fatally flawed (Witt, VanDerHeyden Gilbertson, 2004). Interventions only have meaning if they are done within a larger data-based context. For example, interventions that lack baseline data, goal(s) for improvement, and a progress-monitoring plan are fatally flawed (Witt, VanDerHeyden Gilbertson, 2004).
Critical Item? Intervention Element Notes
? Intervention Documentation. The teacher understands and can manage all documentation required for this intervention (e.g., maintaining a log of intervention sessions, etc.).
? Checkup Date. Before the intervention begins, a future checkup date is selected to review the intervention to determine if it is successful. Time elapsing between the start of the intervention and the checkup date should be short enough to allow a timely review of the intervention but long enough to give the school sufficient time to judge with confidence whether the intervention worked.
? Baseline. Before the intervention begins, the teacher has collected information about the students baseline level of performance in the identified area(s) of academic concern (Witt, VanDerHeyden Gilbertson, 2004).
? Goal. Before the intervention begins, the teacher has set a specific goal for predicted student improvement to use as a minimum standard for success (Witt, VanDerHeyden Gilbertson, 2004). The goal is the expected student outcome by the checkup date if the intervention is successful.
? Progress-Monitoring. During the intervention, the teacher collects progress-monitoring data of sufficient quality and at a sufficient frequency to determine at the checkup date whether that intervention is successful (Witt, VanDerHeyden Gilbertson, 2004).
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Activity Documenting the Intervention
Collecting Data
  • In your teams
  • Consider the elements of intervention
    documentation, data collection, and data
    interpretation discussed here.
  • What steps can your school take to make sure
    that data have a central focus when
    interventionsare planned and implemented?

Documenting the Intervention Collecting Data Documenting the Intervention Collecting Data Documenting the Intervention Collecting Data
Critical Item? Intervention Element Notes
? Intervention Documentation.
? Checkup Date.
? Baseline.
? Goal.
? Progress-Monitoring.
108
References
  • Bergan, J. R. (1995). Evolution of a
    problem-solving model of consultation. Journal of
    Educational and Psychological Consultation, 6(2),
    111-123.
  • Burns, M. K., Gibbons, K. A. (2008).
    Implementing response-to-intervention in
    elementary and secondary schools. Routledge New
    York.
  • Burns, M. K., VanDerHeyden, A. M., Boice, C. H.
    (2008). Best practices in intensive academic
    interventions. In A. Thomas J. Grimes (Eds.),
    Best practices in school psychology V
    (pp.1151-1162). Bethesda, MD National
    Association of School Psychologists.
  • Haring, N.G., Lovitt, T.C., Eaton, M.D.,
    Hansen, C.L. (1978). The fourth R Research in
    the classroom. Columbus, OH Charles E. Merrill
    Publishing Co.
  • Hawkins, R. O., Morrison, J. Q., Musti-Rao, S.,
    Hawkins, J. A. (2008). Treatment integrity for
    academic interventions in real- world settings.
    School Psychology Forum, 2(3), 1-15.
  • Kratochwill, T. R., Clements, M. A., Kalymon,
    K. M. (2007). Response to intervention
    Conceptual and methodological issues in
    implementation. In Jimerson, S. R., Burns, M. K.,
    VanDerHeyden, A. M. (Eds.), Handbook of
    response to intervention The science and
    practice of assessment and intervention. New
    York Springer.
  • Skinner, C. H., Pappas, D. N., Davis, K. A.
    (2005). Enhancing academic engagement Providing
    opportunities for responding and influencing
    students to choose to respond. Psychology in the
    Schools, 42, 389-403.
  • Witt, J. C., VanDerHeyden, A. M., Gilbertson,
    D. (2004). Troubleshooting behavioral
    interventions. A systematic process for finding
    and eliminating problems. School Psychology
    Review, 33, 363-383. 
  • Yeaton, W. M. Sechrest, L. (1981). Critical
    dimensions in the choice and maintenance of
    successful treatments Strength, integrity, and
    effectiveness. Journal of Consulting and Clinical
    Psychology, 49, 156-167.

109
Activity Using the Academic Interventions
Critical Components Checklist
  • In your teams
  • Discuss the Academic Interventions Critical
    Components Checklist.
  • How might your school use this checklist to
    improve the quality of your buildings
    interventions at Tiers 1, 2, and 3?

110
Supplemental Interventions The Challenge of
Providing Tier 2/3 Support in Middle and High
Schools
111
Secondary Students Should Interventions Be
Off-Level or Focus on Grade-Level Academics?
  • There is a lack of consensus about how to
    address the academic needs of students with
    deficits in basic skills in secondary grades
    (Espin Tindal, 1998).
  • Should the student be placed in remedial
    instruction at a point of instructional match
    to address those basic-skill deficits?
    (Instruction is adjusted down to the student)
  • Or is time better spent providing the student
    with compensatory strategies to learn grade-level
    content and work around those basic-skill
    deficits? (Student is brought up to current
    instruction)

Source Espin, C. A., Tindal, G. (1998).
Curriculum-based measurement for secondary
students. In M. R. Shinn (Ed.) Advanced
applications of curriculum-based measurement. New
York Guilford Press.
112
Remediating Academic Deficits The Widening
Curriculum Gap
Subject-Area Rdng Comprehension
Rdng-Basic Comprehension
Rdng Fluency
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Remediating Academic Deficits The Widening
Curriculum Gap
Subject-Area Rdng Comprehension
Rdng-Basic Comprehension
Rdng Fluency
114
Remediating Academic Deficits The Widening
Curriculum Gap
Subject-Area Rdng Comprehension
Rdng-Basic Comprehension
Rdng Fluency
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Supplemental Interventions in Secondary Schools
The Challenge
  • Research indicates that students do well in
    targeted small-group interventions (4-7 students)
    when the intervention treatment is closely
    matched to those students academic needs (Burns
    Gibbons, 2008).
  • However, in secondary schools
  • students are sometimes grouped for remediation by
    convenience rather than by presenting need.
    Teachers instruct across a broad range of student
    skills, diluting the positive impact of the
    intervention.
  • students often present with a unique profile of
    concerns that does not lend itself to placement
    in a group intervention.

Source Burns, M. K., Gibbons, K. A. (2008).
Implementing response-to-intervention in
elementary and secondary schools Procedures to
assure scientific-based practices. New York
Routledge.
116
Caution About Secondary Supplemental
Interventions Avoid the Homework Help Trap
  • Group-based interventions are an efficient method
    to deliver targeted academic support to students
    (Burns Gibbons, 2008).
  • However, students should be matched to specific
    research-based interventions that address their
    specific needs.
  • RTI intervention support in secondary schools
    should not take the form of unfocused homework
    help or test preparation.

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Tier 2/3 Interventions Scheduling Strategies
RTI Scheduling Strategy Considerations
Schoolwide RTI Period. The school sets aside one period per day (e.g., 35-45 minutes) during which all students have the opportunity to receive appropriate academic support. Tier 2/3 students are provide
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