Research Methods

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Research Methods
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• Descriptive Methods
• Observation
• Survey Research
• Experimental Methods
• Independent Groups Designs
• Repeated Measures Designs
• Complex Designs
• Applied Research
• Single-Case Designs and Small-n Research
• Quasi-Experimental Designs and Program Evaluation

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Descriptive Methods

• Observation
• Survey Research

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Observation

• SAMPLING BEHAVIOR
• Time Sampling
• Situation Sampling
• OBSERVATIONAL METHODS
• DIRECT OBSERVATIONAL METHODS
• Observation without Intervention
• Observation with Intervention
• INDIRECT (UNOBTRUSIVE) OBSERVATIONAL METHODS
• Physical Traces
• Archival Records
• RECORDING BEHAVIOR
• Comprehensive Records of Behavior
• Selected Records of Behavior
• ANALYSIS OF OBSERVATIONAL DATA
• Qualitative Data Analysis
• Quantitative Data Analysis

Observation
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Overview

• Observations
• Everyday
• gestures, expressions, postures - universal
  signals
• biasness, no record
• Scientific
• precisely defined conditions
• systematic and objective
• careful record keeping

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Sampling

• Observations
• Across different situations and at different
  times
• representativeness Generalization - External
  validity
• Time event sampling
• choosing time intervals
• systematically or randomly
• Events that happen infrequently
• Situation Sampling
• different locations
• under different circumstances/conditions
• enhances the external validity

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Observational Method
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Observation without Intervention

• Naturalistic observation
• to describe behavior as it normally occurs and to
  examine relationships among variables.
• helps to establish the external validity of
  laboratory findings.
• When ethical and moral considerations prevent
  experimental control, naturalistic observation is
  an important research strategy.

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Observation with Intervention

• The three methods of observation with
  intervention
• participant observation, structured observation,
  and the field experiment
• Participant Observation
• Allow to observe things not usually open to
  scientific observation
• Reactivity
• individuals change their behavior when they know
  they are being
• Structured observations
• set up to record behaviors, difficult to observe
  otherwise
• Field experiment
• Manipulation of independent variables in a
  natural setting

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INDIRECT (UNOBTRUSIVE) OBSERVATIONAL METHODS

• Advantage-nonreactive
• Physical Traces
• Use traces reflect the physical evidence of use
  (or nonuse) of items
• natural Vs controlled use
• Products are the creations, constructions, or
  other artifacts of behavior

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Archival Records

• Archival records
• public and private documents describing the
  activities of individuals, groups, institutions,
  and governments,
• Running records records that are continuously
  kept and updated e.g., records of academic life
• Records of specific, episodic events describe
  specific events or episodes in ones life e.g.,
  birth certificates, marriage, licenses
• Potential problems
• selective deposit, selective survival, and the
  possibility of spurious relationships.

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Recording Behvior

• How the results of a study are ultimately
  summarized, analyzed, and reported depends on how
  behavioral observations are initially recorded
• Classification of behaviors is done after the
  observations
• As a general rule, records should be made during
  or as soon as possible after behavior is observed
• Field notes -observers running descriptions of
  the participants, events, settings, and behaviors
  of interest

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Measurement Scales
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Descriptive MethodsObservationSurvey Research

• USES OF SURVEYS
• CHARACTERISTICS OF SURVEYS
• SAMPLING IN SURVEY RESEARCH
• Basic Terms of Sampling
• Approaches to Sampling
• SURVEY METHODS
• Mail Surveys
• Personal Interviews
• Telephone Interviews
• Internet Surveys
• SURVEY-RESEARCH DESIGNS
• Cross-Sectional Design
• Successive Independent Samples Design
• Longitudinal Design
• QUESTIONNAIRES
• Questionnaires as Instruments
• Reliability and Validity of Self-Report Measures
• Constructing a Questionnaire
• THINKING CRITICALLY ABOUT SURVEY RESEARCH

Survey Research
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USES OF SURVEYS

• To assess peoples thoughts, opinions, and
  feelings.
• Specific and limited in scope or more global in
  their goals.
• Determine biasness examine the survey procedures
  and analyses.

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CHARACTERISTICS OF SURVEYS

• Selection of sample (or samples)
• Predetermined set of questions

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Issues in Survey Research

• Response set/style
• Response acquiescence (yea-saying)
• Response deviation (nay-saying)
• Social desirability
• Volunteer problem
• Volunteers differ from non-volunteers
• More intelligent, better educated, more
  cooperative

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Survey Research (2)

• Sampling issues
• Random sample is expensive to collect
• Stratified sample
• Population is divided into smaller units and
  random sampling is done from the smaller units
• Have the selected samples represent the
  population
• 40 from California or 65 female or 22 Hispanic

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Constructing Questions

• Research Objectives
• Attitudes and beliefs
• Facts and demographics
• Behaviors
• Wording
• Simplicity
• Multiple component questions
• Negative wording

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Constructing Questions (2)

• Answer format
• Open-ended versus forced choice
• Answer options
• Format
• End points
• Symmetry
• Age/mental ability/physical ability/experience

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Psychometric Scaling

• Guttman Scales (Cumulative Scales)
• Coefficient of reproducibility
• Ratio of number of appropriate responses to total
  number of responses
• of responses that are completely cumulative
• Guttman said .90 was minimal acceptable level
• Likert Scales (Summated Rating Scales)
• Reverse scoring
• Coefficient of correlation
• Do the questions match the overall score?

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Psychometric Scaling (2)

• Other scales
• Error choice method
• Semantic differential
• Bogardus Social Distance Scale
• Self report method
• Rely on participant to provide data
• Benefit ease
• Cost not a direct test

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Administration

• Personal administration
• Mail surveys
• Response rate
• Internet surveys
• Other technologies

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Interviews

• Interviewer bias
• Face-to-face
• Telephone
• Focus groups

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Age

• Cross-sectional method
• Take a large sample of various ages and test them
  at the same time
• Longitudinal method
• Follow same participants over a period of time
• Time-lag design
• Subjects of a particular age are tested at
  different time periods
• Cross-sequential design
• Test several different age groups at different
  times