AP%20European%20History%20Review%202nd%20Semester

1
AP European History Review 2nd Semester

• Industrial Revolution
• To
• European Union

2
The Industrial Revolution

• Origins
• Agricultural revolution
• New methods of farming increased food production,
  led to population growth surplus of labor
• Capital for investment (banking and credit
  system)
• Mineral resources
• Supply of coal iron ore needed to run machines
• Private and public investment built up
  infrastructure
• Roads, bridges, canals, railroads etc.
• Markets
• colonial empire - market for manufactured goods

3
Technological Changes

• Cotton Industry
• Water frame use of hydro power
• Cromptons mule
• Combined aspects of the water frame the
  Spinning Jenny to increase yarn production
• Water powered machines made rivers key locations
  for production
• The Steam engine
• James Watt (1736-1819)
• Developed the steam engine powered by coal which
  increased productivity
• Steam engines did not need to be located by
  rivers - development of factories
• Coal production quadrupled from 1815 to 1850 to
  keep up with demand

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• A Revolution in Transportation Railroad
• Richard Trevithicks locomotive
• 1st Steam powered
• George Stephensons Rocket
• 1st public railway line (32 miles long) went
  16MPH
• The Industrial Factory
• Workers were wage earners instead of
  entrepreneurs
• Workers were forced to work regular hours in
  shifts
• Major change from agrarian work
• Disciplined with fines, dismissal or beatings

5
The Pace of Industrialization on the Continent

• Obstacles to Rapid Industrialization
• Lack of a transportation system
• Didnt have good roads or river transit
• Upheavals of war
• French Revolution and Napoleonic Wars
• Weakened political and social stability
• Loss of manpower

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The Social Impact of the Industrial Revolution

• Population Growth
• Decline of the death rate (famine, epidemics,
  war) increase in food supply
• Agricultural revolution all but ended famine
• By 1850, European population was over 265 million
• The Great Hunger (Exception to increase in food
  supply)
• Irish population growth
• Grew from 4 to 8 million between 1781 1845
• Reliance on the potato
• Potato crop fails, 1845-1851
• Over 1 million died of starvation and disease
• Over 2 million emigrated to U.S.
• Ireland became the only European nation with a
  declining population in the 19th century

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• The Growth of Cities
• Rapid, unplanned, growth
• Move from rural to urban left the countryside
  looking for work in cities
• Direct result of industrialization

8

• Urban Living Conditions in the Early Industrial
  Revolution
• Cities and suburbs
• Sprang up fast with little planning quickly
  overcrowded
• Unsanitary conditions
• Waste flowed through the gutters
• Crowding
• Rise in prostitution, crime, sexual immorality
• Adulteration of food
• Chemicals were added to food and drinks were
  watered down
• Urban Reformers
• Edwin Chadwick
• Advocated a system of modern sanitary reform
• Resulted in first Public Health Act
• Use of drainage (sewers) and piped water

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Efforts at Change

• Efforts at Change The Workers
• Luddites
• skilled craftspeople who attacked the machines
  they believed threatened their livelihoods
  (British)
• The Peoples Charter (Chartists) British Workers
  movement
• Demanded universal male suffrage, payment for
  members of Parliament, elimination of property
  requirements for members of Parliament annual
  sessions of Parliament
• Attempted to institute change by peaceful,
  constitutional means
• Provided working-class with sense of consciousness

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Romanticism The Conservative Order (1815 1830)

• The Peace Settlement
• Quadruple Alliance Great Britain, Russia,
  Austria, Prussia
• Defeated Napoleon
• Congress of Vienna (1814 1815)
• Created policies to maintain European balance of
  power
• Lead by Prince Klemens von Metternich (Austrian
  foreign minister)
• Believed European monarchs shared common interest
  of stability
• The principal of legitimacy
• Considered it necessary to restore legitimate
  monarchs to preserve traditional institutions
• A new balance of power
• Strengthen countries to prevent one country from
  dominating

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Conservative Ideology

• Conservative political thought
• Obedience to political authority
• Organized religion was crucial to social order
• Hated revolutionary upheavals
• Advocated slow, gradual changes
• Unwilling to accept liberal demands or
  representative government
• Congress of Vienna sought to weaken France and
  maintain a balance power
• Congress of Vienna managed to prevent an all out
  European conflict for almost a century

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Conservative Domination The Concert of Europe

• The Concert of Europe
• Fear of Revolution war led to development of
  the Concert of Europe
• Met several times congresses
• Quintuple Alliance
• Withdraw armies from France, add France to the
  Concert of Europe

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• Principle of intervention
• Great powers reserved the right to send armies
  into countries where there were revolutions to
  restore legitimate monarchs to their throne
• Britain objected to the principle of intervention
  leading to a breakdown in the Concert of Europe
• Britains refusal kept Continental Europe from
  interfering in revolutions in Latin America

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The Revolt of Latin America

• Bourbon monarchy of Spain toppled
• Latin American countries begin declaring
  independence
• Simón Bolivar (1783-1830)
• Freed Columbia (1819) Venezuela (1821)
• José de San Martín (1778-1850)
• Freed Chile (1817)
• After 1825, almost all of Latin America was free
  of colonial domination
• Continental Europe looked to intervene, U.S.
  passed the Monroe Doctrine pledging to support
  Latin American countries
• British Navy was more of a deterrent than U.S.
  words
• Britain began to dominate Latin American economy
• British merchants investors moved in

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• Intervention in the Italian States and Spain
• Conservative reaction against the forces of
  nationalism and liberalism
• Austrian forces intervene in Italy
• French forces intervene in Spain
• Repression in Central Europe
• Metternich and the forces of reaction
• Liberal and national movements in Germany
• Initially weak remained controlled by
  landowning class
• Burschenshaften students societies, dedicated
  to a free and united Germany (symbol of growing
  liberalism and nationalism)
• Karlsbad Decrees (1819)
• Metternich had this decree drawn up by the
  Germanic Confederation in response to the
  Burschenschaften
• The Karlsbad Decrees (1819)
• Disbanded the Burschenschaften
• Censored the press
• Supervised universities
• Restrictions on university activities

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• Russia
• Start of 19th century, Russia was rural,
  agricultural, and autocratic
• Alexander I (1801-1825)
• Raised on ideas of the Enlightenment seemed
  sympathetic to reform
• Leader of Russia during Napoleonic Wars
• After the defeat of Napoleon, his rule turned
  stricter leading to opposition
• Used censorship to govern the people
• Nicholas I (1825-1855)
• Military leaders of the Northern Union rebelled
  against Nicholas I taking the throne (Decembrist
  Revolt)
• Revolt was crushed by loyal troops
• Russia became a police state (secret police)
• Nicholas feared revolutions in Russia in Europe

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Political liberalism

• Ideology of political liberalism
• Believed in individual freedom
• Protection of civil liberties
• Freedom before the law, assembly, speech, press
• Modeled after the Declaration of Independence
  the Rights of Man Citizen
• The rights of a representative assembly
  (legislature) to make laws
• Political liberalism was embraced by the
  industrial middle class
• They wanted voting rights so they could share
  power with the landowning class but they didnt
  advocate extending those rights to the lower class

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Nationalism

• Part of a community with common institutions,
  traditions, language, and customs
• The community is called a nation
• Formation of political loyalty
• Nationalist ideology
• Arose from the French Revolution and spread
  across Europe
• National unity in Germany or Italy threatened to
  upset the balance of power established with the
  Congress of Vienna
• Independent Hungarian state would breakup the
  Austrian Empire
• Conservatives tried to repress nationalism
  (Concert of Europe)
• Allied with liberalism
• Liberals believed their goals could only be
  realized by people who ruled themselves
• Nationalists believed that stronger states
  comprised of their own people would eventually
  link communities and ultimately humanity

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Revolution and Reform, 1830-1850

• Another French Revolution
• Charles X (1824-1830)
• Liberals were winning elections which angered the
  king
• Issued the July Ordinances
• Rigid censorship
• Dissolved the legislative assembly
• Reduced the electorate in preparation for new
  elections
• Immediate revolt by liberals

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• Louis-Philippe (1830-1848)
• Group of moderate liberals appealed to
  Louis-Philippe, the Duke of Orleans to become the
  constitutional king of France
• Charles X fled to Great Britain a new monarchy
  was born
• The bourgeois monarch support for his rule came
  from the upper middle class
• Constitutional changes favor the upper
  bourgeoisie
• Lower bourgeoisie working class are
  disappointed that they are excluded from
  political power

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Revolutionary Outbursts in Belgium, Poland, and
Italy (Nationalism)

• Primary driving force for these three 1830
  revolution was nationalism.
• Austrian Netherlands (Catholic Belgium) given to
  (Protestant) Dutch Republic by the Congress of
  Vienna
• Nationalistic revolt by the Belgians
  (Protestants) established a constitutional
  monarchy
• Revolt attempts in Poland and Italy
• Austrians crushed Italian revolution
• Russians crushed Polish revolution

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Reform in Great Britain

• The Reform Act of 1832
• New political power for industrial urban
  communities (Whigs take power over Tories)
• July Revolution in France set the stage for
  change
• Benefited the upper middle class (wealthy
  industrial middle class)
• Reform Act of 1832 Industrial communities
  gained a voice in voting
• Number of voters increased from 478,000 814,000
• Artisans, industrial workers lower middle
  classes still had no vote
• New Reform Legislation
• Poor Law of 1834 based on the theory that
  giving aid to the poor unemployed would
  encourage laziness
• The poor were crowded into workhouses where the
  living working conditions were intentionally
  miserable so people would be encouraged to find
  employment
• Repeal of the Corn Laws (1846)
• Economic liberals advocated free trade lower
  bread prices for workers

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The Revolutions of 1848

• Yet Another French Revolution
• 1846 agricultural industrial depression
• 1847 33 unemployment rate in Paris
• Government was corrupt failed to initiate
  reform
• No suffrage for the middle class
• Louis-Philippe abdicates, February 24, 1848 (fled
  to Britain)
• Provisional government established
• Elections to be by universal male suffrage
• National workshops jobs for unemployed
• Growing split between moderate and liberal
  republicans
• Moderate Government most of France
• Radical liberals Parisian working class

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• Provisional government established workshops
  under the influence of Louis Blanc
• Unemployed workers got jobs raking leafs, ditch
  digging other manual labor jobs
• Unemployed workers in the national workshops rose
  from 10,000 to 120,000, emptying the treasury
  prompting moderates to halt the programs
• Became little more than unemployment compensation
  units through public works projects
• Workers refused to except the decision leading to
  four days of fighting in this working class
  revolt (government prevailed)
• Second Republic established
• New Constitution ratified
• Charles Louis Napoleon Bonaparte was elected in
  December, 1848 (nephew of Napoleon)

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Revolution in Central Europe

• French revolts led to promises of reform
• Frederick William IV (1840-1861)
• Germanic state rulers made concessions to the
  growing revolutionary sentiments
• Freedom of press, abolishing censorship, new
  constitutions, working towards a united Germany
• Frankfurt Assembly
• All German parliament elected by universal male
  suffrage
• Purpose was to prepare a constitution for a
  united Germany
• Frederick William IV refused the offer of
  emperor of the Germans
• Frankfurt Assembly disbanded without
  accomplishing their goal of a united Germany

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Austrian Empire

• Louis Kossuth, Hungary
• Advocated the formation of a legislature
• Metternich flees the country after demonstrations
  begin he is dismissed from office
• In Vienna, revolutionary forces took control
  calling for a constituent assembly
• Hungarys wishes granted
• Own Legislature
• National army
• Control over its foreign policy budget

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Austria Contd

• Emperor Ferdinand I Austrian officials made
  concessions to revolutionaries but waited for an
  opportunity to reassert conservative control
• Tried to capitalize on division between radical
  moderate revolutionaries
• Military forces suppressed Czech rebels
• Ferdinand I abdicated in favor of his nephew
• Francis Joseph I (1848-1916)
• Nicholas I of Russia sent in troops to defeat
  Kossuths forces and suppress the revolution
• Austrian emperor propertied classes remained in
  power

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The Failures of 1848

• Division within the revolutionaries
• Radicals and liberals
• Liberties from propertied classes failed to
  extend male suffrage to the working classes
• Liberals were concerned about their property
  security the fear of a social revolution by the
  working class
• Divisions among nationalities
• Hungarians demanded autonomy from Austrians but
  refused to offer the same autonomy to their
  minorities

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The Emergence of an Ordered Society

• Development of a regular system of police
• Purpose of police
• Preserve property lives, maintain domestic
  order, investigate crime, arrest offenders to
  create a disciplined law-abiding society
• French Police forces in France and England
• Crime and Social Reform
• Prison Reform

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Nationalism The France of Napoleon III Louis
Napoleon the 2nd Napoleonic Empire

• Louis Napoleon Toward the Second Empire
• Used nationalistic liberal forces to bolster
  his power
• National Assembly rejected his call for revision
  of constitution to allow him to stand for
  reelection
• Responded by seizing government with the military
• Restored universal male suffrage
• People elected him president for 10 years so the
  empire could be restored
• Voted him in by an overwhelming majority
• Assumed the title of Napoleon III, December 2,
  1852

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• The Second Napoleonic Empire
• Authoritarian government
• Early domestic policies
• Economic prosperity
• Used government spending to stimulate the economy
• Reconstruction of Paris
• Built railroads, harbors, roads, canals
• Built hospitals housing for the people
• Baron Haussmann (civil engineer)
• Modernized Paris
• Wider streets, sewage system, water supply,
  gaslights
• Liberalization of the regime in the face of
  opposition
• Legalized trade unions gave them the right to
  strike
• Strengthened power of the government

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Foreign policy Crimean War

• The Ottoman Empire
• Disintegration of the Ottoman Empire
• Encroachment of the Russian Empire
• Loss of territory
• The War
• Russian demand to protect Christian shrines
  (Privilege already given to the French)
• Ottomans refuse Russia invades Moldavia and
  Wallachia
• Turks declare war, October 4, 1853
• Britain and France declare war on Russia, March
  28, 1854
• Austria remains neutral does not give the
  military support Russia was counting on
• War ends in March, 1856 (Treaty of Paris)
• High death count on both sides due to disease
• Political effects of the war
• Destroys the Concert of Europe
• Austria Russia now enemies
• Russia withdraws from European affairs, so does
  Britain
• Sets the stage for German Italian unification

33
National Unification Italy

• Kingdom of Piedmont
• Northern Italian state that had historically
  stood up to the Austrian Empire
• Victor Emmanuel II (1849-1878) of Kingdom of
  Piedmont
• Names Count Camillo di Cavour (1810-1861) as
  prime minister
• Napoleon IIIs alliance with Piedmont, 1858
• Cavour agrees to give Napoleon Nice and Savoy in
  exchange for military support in driving Austria
  out of Italy
• War with Austria, 1859
• France wins a couple of early battles and made
  peace
• Prussia was mobilizing to support Austria
• Northern states join Piedmont (nationalists rose
  up)
• Italian nationalists in the 1850s looked to
  Piedmont for leadership to provide unification of
  Italy

34
National Unification Italy

• Guiseppi Garibaldi (1807-1882)
• The Red Shirts (Volunteer Army)
• Invasion of Kingdom of the Two Sicilies, 1860
• Moved up the Peninsula until an army from
  Piedmont moved south
• Garibaldi backs down to prevent a civil war
• Kingdom of Italy, March 17, 1861
• Annexation of Venetia, 1866
• Italy became an ally to Prussia in the
  Austro-Prussian War of 1866
• Annexation of Rome, 1870
• French troops withdrew due to the Franco-Prussian
  War 1870-1871
• Rome became the capital of a unified Italy

35
National Unification Germany

• Zollverein, German customs union which began to
  unite German states economically
• William I, 1861-1888
• Wanted military reforms planned to double the
  armys size
• Otto von Bismarck (1815-1898) (prime minister)
• Reorganization and mobilization of the army
• Realpolitik political realist, ruling by
  opportunity, not ideology
• Bypassed parliament in pursuing political goals
• The Danish War (1864)
• Bismarck always fought an isolated opponent
• Schleswig and Holstein
• Austria Germany defeated Denmark split
  control of the two territories
• Joint administration with Austria

36
Austro-Prussian War (1866)

• Austro-Prussian War (1866)
• Russia remains neutral out of anger over Austria
  not helping them in the Crimean War
• Bismarck buys French neutrality by promising him
  land
• Austrian defeat at Königgratz, July 3, 1866
• Prussian breech-loading needle gun had a faster
  rate of fire
• Prussian troops moved faster due to network of
  railroads
• Signed an easy peace with Austria to avoid
  creating a hostile enemy
• North German Confederation organized states,
  signed a military alliance with Southern states
  (mainly Catholic)
• Bismarck proved nationalism authoritarian
  government could be combined successfully
• King Chancellor (Bismarck) held the real power,
  but two houses of Parliament had elected
  officials from the German States

37
Franco-Prussian War (1870-1871)

• Two major powers in continental Europe were bound
  to clash (Prussia France)
• Dispute with France over the throne of Spain
• Throne was offered to distant relative of
  Prussian King
• Bismarck edited a telegram from the king to goad
  the French into war
• French declaration of war, July 15, 1870
• Battle of Sedan, September 2, 1870
• Entire French army Napoleon III are captured
• Siege of Paris, capitulates January 28, 1871
• France paid 5 billion francs
• Gave up provinces of Alsace Lorraine to Germany
• Southern German states join Northern German
  Confederation
• William I proclaimed kaiser, January 8, 1871, of
  the Second German Empire
• British Prime Minister felt German unification
  destroyed the previous balance of power

38
The Austrian Empire Toward a Dual Monarchy

• Ausgleich, Compromise, 1867
• Creates a dual monarchy of Austria-Hungary
• Each monarchy had a separate constitution
  legislature
• German speaking Austrians and Hungarian Magyars
  dominate minorities
• Francis Joseph Emperor of Austria/King of Hungary
• Some things held in common
• Army
• Finances
• Foreign policy

39
Imperial Russia

• Alexander II, 1855-1881
• Emancipation of serfs, March 3, 1861
• Peasants could own property, marry as they chose,
  file suits in court
• Problems with emancipation
• Government bought land from nobles sold it to
  the peasants with long term installment plans
• Land was often the worst available
• Peasants worked for gov. instead of nobles
• Zemstvos (local assemblies)
• Dominated by noble landowners
• Created a local system of courts judicial code
  of equality before the law

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• Growing dissatisfaction
• Conservatives liberals were upset with reforms
• Assassination of Alexander II (1881)
• Populism student intellectual group looking
  to create a new society through revolutionary
  acts
• Alexander is shot killed by another radical
  group known as the Peoples Will
• Alexander III (1881-1894)
• Return to traditional methods of repression

41
Great Britain The Victorian Age

• Did not experience revolts in 1848
• Reforms
• Economic growth
• Queen Victoria (1837 1901) reflected the age
• Symbol of high morals and national pride
  Victorian Age
• Benjamin Disraeli (1804-1881)
• Tory (Conservative) Party leader
• Extension of voting rights
• Reform Act, 1867
• Lowered voting requirements (taxes paid or income
  earned)
• More male urban workers could vote
• Increased overall number of voters
• Established tighter organization of Liberal
  Conservative parties

42

• William Gladstone (first administration, 1868
  1874)
• Leader of Liberal party (Whigs)
• Responsible for liberal reform acts
• Civil Service Exams
• Secret Ballot
• Education Act of 1870
• Attempted to provide free public education at the
  elementary school level

43
Industrialization on the Continent

• Continental industrialization comes of age (1850
  1871)
• Mechanization of textile and cotton industries
• Growth of iron and coal industries
• Fueled by the expansion of railroads
• 1850 14,500 miles of track in Europe
• 1870 70,000 miles of track in Europe
• Elimination of trade barriers stimulated economic
  growth
• Government support and financing
• Joint-stock investment banks were crucial to
  stimulation of industrial development

44
Marx and Marxism

• Karl Marx (1818-1883) and Friedrich Engels
  (1820-1895), The Communist Manifesto, 1848
• History is the history of class struggle
• Stages of history
• End result of history is a classless society
• The proletarians have nothing to lose but their
  chains. They have a world to win. Working men
  of all countries, unite!
• After 1848 Revolutions, Marx went to London
• Marx, Das Kapital (writing on political economy)
• International Working Mens Association, 1864
• First International - Organization for
  working-class interests (formed by British
  French trade unions)

45
A New Age of Science

• Development of the steam engine led to scientific
  relationship between heat and mechanical energy
• Louis Pasteur germ theory of disease
• 1863 Pasteurization, process of heating a
  product to destroy organisms causing spoilage
• Dmitri Mendeleyev atomic weights and formation
  of periodic law
• Michael Faraday discovered electromagnetic
  induction and created first generator
• Science and Materialism
• People turned to science for answers rather than
  religion
• Truth was to be found in the concrete existence
  of human beings, not religious and romantic
  ideals
• Growing secularization of population

46
Charles Darwin and the Theory of Organic Evolution

• Charles Darwin (1809-1882)
• On the Origin of Species by Means of Natural
  Selection, 1859
• All plants and animals have evolved over a long
  period of time
• Those who survived had adapted to the environment
• The Descent of Man, 1871
• Discussed the humans origin from animals
• Ideas highly controversial gradually accepted
• Later applied to society with social darwinism

47
Mass Society
48
The Growth of Industrial Prosperity New Products
New Markets

• Mass Society
• In the late 19th century, human progress was
  measured with material progress and consumption
  of material goods
• Europeans began to value leisure activities and
  the weekend (free from work)
• Lower and middle class began to take trains to
  amusement parks and the beach
• Mass Politics
• After 1871, the focus of European life became the
  national state
• Growing sense of nationalism and popularity of
  sports
• Extension of universal male suffrage leads to
  nationalism to influence the masses
• First Industrial Revolution
• Textiles, railroads, iron, and coal
• Second Industrial Revolution
• Steel, chemicals, electricity, and petroleum

49

• Internal Combustion Engine (1878-Gas Air)
• Automobile and airplane
• Henry Ford (1863-1947) mass production
  (assembly line)
• Zeppelin airship, 1900
• Wright brothers, 1903 (1st passenger air service
  1919)
• New markets
• Focused on consumer goods for domestic markets
• Prices of food and manufactured goods decreased
• Increased wages
• Competition for foreign markets
• Tariff
• Reaction against free trade to guarantee domestic
  markets for their own industries
• Cartels
• Companies worked together to fix prices set
  production quotas
• Larger factories
• Assembly lines

50
New Patterns in an Industrial Economy

• Economic Patterns, 1873 1914
• Depression, 1873 1895
• Economic boom, 1895 1914
• German Industrial Leadership
• Germany replaces Britain as the industrial leader
  of Europe
• New areas of manufacturing (chemicals, electrical
  equipment)
• Industrialized later, so they invested in modern
  equipment
• Encouraged scientific technical education

51

• European Economic Zones
• Advanced industrial core of Great Britain,
  Belgium France, the Netherlands, Germany, western
  part of the Austro-Hungarian Empire, and northern
  Italy
• Little industrial development in southern Italy,
  most of Austria-Hungary, Spain, Portugal, the
  Balkan kingdoms, and Russia
• Surplus grain and cheap transportation caused a
  sharp drop in agricultural prices.
• The Spread of Industrialization
• Industrialization in Russia and Japan
• Japans government took the lead in promoting
  industry
• Emergence of a World Economy
• Europe was importing goods from around the world
• Foreign countries were used as markets for the
  surplus of manufactured goods

52
Women and Work New Job Opportunities

• Women sought the Right to work
• Ideal of Domesticity working class
  organizations supported traditional roles for
  women
• Sweatshops subcontracting work out to women at
  home
• White-Collar Jobs
• Increase in white-collar jobs created a shortage
  of male workers opening up opportunities for
  women (After 1870)
• Expansion of service sector jobs - secretaries,
  teachers nurses
• Freedom from domestic patterns
• Prostitution
• Many lower class women became prostitutes in big
  cities as a way to survive
• London 1885 an estimated 60,000 prostitutes
• Contagious Diseases Acts in the 1870s 1880s
• Called for inspection of prostitutes for venereal
  diseases
• Acts were repealed over complaints that men were
  not being checked

53
Organizing the Working Class

• Trade Unions
• First half of the 19th Century
• Trade Unions functioned as mutual aid societies
• Late 19th Century
• Formed labor unions and political parties based
  on ideas of Karl Marx
• Trade unions are increasingly aligned with
  socialist parties
• Socialist Parties
• German Social Democratic Party (SPD)
• Largest German political party by 1912
• Growth of socialist parties spread to other
  European countries
• Second International united socialist
  organization
• Struggled due to internal differences
• Two divisive issues nationalism and revisionism

54

• Evolutionary Socialism (Revisionism)
• Eduard Bernstein (1850-1932)
• Member of the German Social Democratic Party who
  spent years in exile in Britain
• Argued that Marx had made fundamental mistakes
  and socialists needed to stress cooperation and
  evolution rather than class conflict and
  revolution
• Stressed the need to work through democratic
  politics to create socialism, not revolution.

55

• The Problem of Nationalism
• Variation of socialist parties from country to
  country
• Focused on issues in their own countries instead
  of a unified workers movement
• The Role of Trade Unions
• National variations
• German unions were the strongest
• Unions and political parties
• The Anarchist Alternative
• More popular in less industrialized nations
  (Italy, Spain, Russia, Portugal) where people
  saw no hope of peaceful political change
• Initially believed that people were inherently
  good but got corrupted by the state and society
• Socialist parties and trade unions became less
  radical so some people turned to anarchism as a
  means for a social revolution
• Michael Bakunin
• Russian anarchist who advocated violence to
  dissolve state institutions

56
Emergence of a Mass Society

• Population Growth
• 1850 270 million
• 1910 460 million
• Population growth
• 1850-1880 caused by increasing birth rate
• After 1880 caused by declining mortality rate
• Medical discoveries and environmental conditions
• Smallpox vaccination
• Improved publication sanitation
• Reduced deaths from diarrhea, dysentery, typhoid
  fever, cholera
• Improved nutrition
• Better nutrition food hygiene
• Faster shipment of food
• Pasteurization of milk
• Emigration
• Economic motives
• Oppressed minorities went to other countries
  (especially U.S)
• Political motives
• Lower class citizens seeking more freedom

57
Transformation of the Urban Environment

• Urbanization of Europe
• Migration from rural to urban
• 1800 21 European cities with a population of
  100,000
• 1900 147 European cities with a population of
  100,000
• People moved to the cities for job opportunities
• Improving Living Conditions
• Reformers Edwin Chadwick and Rudolf Virchow
• Pointed to relationship between living conditions
  and disease
• Buildings begin to be inspected for problems
• Public Health Act of 1875 in Britain
• Clean water into the city
• Private baths (Hot water) became accessible to
  people in 1860s
• Shower appears in 1880s
• Sewage System

58

• Housing Needs
• Reformer-philanthropists focused on relationship
  of living conditions to political and moral
  health of the nation built homes for the poor
• Government support increase in regulations
• Demolition of old, unneeded urban defensive walls
  and new, wider streets
• Octavia Hill rehabilitated old homes and built
  new ones designed to give the poor an environment
  they could use to improve themselves
• Redesigning the Cities
• Major European cities were redesigned after the
  example of Paris in the 1850s
• Construction of streetcars commuter trains
  created suburbs

59
The Social Structure of the Society

• The Upper Classes
• 5 of the population that controlled 30 to 40 of
  wealth
• Plutocrats aristocrats who made their money on
  investments in railroads, public utilities,
  government bonds, businesses
• Alliance of wealthy business elite and
  traditional aristocracy
• Common bonds wealthy middle class kids admitted
  to elite schools
• The Middle Classes
• Upper middle class, middle middle-class, lower
  middle-class
• Professionals (law, medicine, civil service)
• New professionals engineers, architects,
  accountants, chemists
• White-collar workers (product of the 2nd
  Industrial Revolution)
• Sales reps, bookkeepers, bank tellers, telephone
  operators, secretaries, department store clerks
• Middle-class values came to dominate
• Concerned with traditional Christian values and
  work ethic

60

• The Lower classes
• 80 percent of the European population
• Agriculture
• Many were landholding peasants sharecroppers,
  laborers
• Urban working class Skilled, semiskilled,
  unskilled workers 
• Skilled artisans cabinet makers, printers,
  jewelry makers
• semiskilled artisans carpenters, bricklayers,
  factory workers
• Unskilled laborers day laborers, domestic
  services

61
The Woman Question The Role of Women

• Traditional Values
• Marriage the only honorable and available career
• Decline in the birth rate in part to some birth
  control
• 1840s-invention of vulcanized rubber made birth
  control an option
• Elizabeth Poole Sanford encouraged women to avoid
  being self-sufficient. Thought women should
  embrace domesticity and dependence on their
  husbands.
• Middle-Class and Working-Class Families
• Glorified Domesticity
• Domestic ideal for the family emphasized
  togetherness with time for leisure
• Stressed functional knowledge for their children
  to prepare them for future roles.
• Daughters of working class families worked until
  married
• 1890 1914 higher paying jobs made it possible
  to live on husbands wages
• Limit size of the family
• Reduced work week

62
Education in the Mass Society

• Expansion of Secondary Education
• Universal Elementary Education
• States began to offer public education
• By 1900, most were free and compulsory at the
  primary level
• States assumed the responsibility for teacher
  training
• Liberal Beliefs About Education
• Personal and social development
• Needs of industrialization
• Differences in education of boys and girls
• Girls - less math science, more domestic
  skills
• Boys humanities plus carpentry military drill
• Political motives
• Need for an educated electorate
• Instilled patriotism and nationalized the masses
• Female Teachers
• Increased Literacy from mass education
• Growth of Newspapers

63
Western Europe The Growth of Political Democracy

• Reform in Britain William Gladstone
• Reform Act of 1867 Suffrage extended
• English Reform Bill of 1884
• Gave English agricultural workers the right to
  vote
• Redistribution Act of 1885 Reorganized the
  election boroughs
• Salaries paid to members of the House of Commons,
  1911
• More people could run for office
• Charles Parnell (1846-1891)
• Leader of the Irish representatives in Parliament
• Called for Home Rule for Ireland
• This would have established a separate Parliament
  for Ireland
• English conservatives voted against home rule
• Resulted in terrorist attacks by the Irish

64

• Reform in France
• Louis Napoleons 2nd Empire ended with his defeat
  in the Franco-Prussian War
• Universal male suffrage in 1871 enforced by
  Bismarck
• People elected a new National Assembly
• Radical republicans formed an independent
  government in Paris known as the Commune
• Fighting broke out between the Commune and the
  National Assembly
• National Assembly massacred thousands of members
  of the Paris Commune
• Brutal suppression of the Paris Commune created a
  split between the working class and the middle
  class
• Establishment of the Third Republic, 1875
• Monarchists, Catholic clergy and army officers
  opposed the Third Republic
• General Georges Boulanger - leader of a proposed
  coup detat
• Lost the courage to carry it out and fled the
  country
• Boulanger crisis rallied French citizens to the
  republic

65

• Italy
• Had pretensions of great power status
• Sectional differences in Italy
• Italians were loyal to their family, towns and
  regions, but not their country
• Chronic turmoil beyond the governments control
• No universal male suffrage
• Italy Spain
• Both remained second rate European powers

66
Central Eastern Europe Persistence of the Old
Order

• Germany
• Trappings of parliamentary government
• 1871 constitution
• Emperor commands the military in Prussian
  tradition
• Bismarcks conservatism
• Used coalitions to get what he wanted then he
  dropped them
• Kulturkampf - struggle for civilization an
  attack on Catholic Church
• Tried to weaken Social Democratic Party by
  passing antisocialist law
• Tried to woo workers from socialism by passing
  social welfare programs

67

• Austria-Hungary
• Austrian constitution of 1867 (in reality it was
  still an autocracy)
• Problem of minorities worsened with universal
  male suffrage, 1907
• Russia
• Alexander III, 1881-1894 Overturns reform and
  returns to repressive measures (autocracy) after
  assassination of Alexander II
• Nicholas II, 1894-1917 Believed in absolute rule

68
Age of Modernity
69
Toward the Modern Consciousness Developments in
the Sciences

• European Intellectual Community
• Prior to WWI prominent thinkers had a sense of
  confusion and anxiety about an impending
  catastrophe
• Brought on by the growth of nationalism and
  technology
• The Certainty of Science
• Based on ideas from the Scientific Revolution
  Enlightenment
• Late 19th century - scientists questioned
  established scientific theories
• Marie Curie (1867-1934) and Pierre Curie
  (1859-1906)
• Marie won Nobel Prizes in physics chemistry
• Discovered radiation (Marie ironically died from
  leukemia)
• Atoms small worlds with protons electrons
• Their experiments spawned a new theme in physics
  that studied the disintegrative processes within
  atoms

70

• Max Planck (1858-1947)
• Energy radiated discontinuously (irregular
  packets of quanta)
• Formation of quantum theory
• Raised questions about the subatomic realm of the
  atom the building blocks of the material world
• New physicists began to challenge and ultimately
  invalidate some of the work of Newton
• Albert Einstein (1879-1955)
• Theory of relativity space time are not
  absolute
• Four dimensional space-time continuum
• Energy of the atom

71
Toward a New Understanding of the Irrational

• Friedrich Nietzsche (1844-1900)
• Glorifies the irrational
• Claimed humans at the whim of irrational life
  forces
• God is dead
• Critique of Christianity
• Felt Christianity weakened Western creativity
• Concept of the superman
• Superior intellectuals must rise up and lead the
  masses
• Rejected democracy, social reform, universal
  suffrage
• Henri Bergson (1859 1941)
• French philosopher who accepted rational thought
  but thought it was incapable of arriving at
  truth.
• Georges Sorel (1847 1922)
• Advocated revolutionary socialism through
  violence

72
Sigmund Freud Psychoanalysis

• Sigmund Freud (1856-1939)
• The Interpretation of Dreams, 1900
• Foundation of psychoanalysis
• The Unconscious
• Human behavior was influenced by the unconscious
  and by inner desires
• Id, Ego, and Superego
• Id center of unconscious (pleasure principle)
• Ego reason, coordinator of life (reality
  principle)
• Superego moral values of society
• The superego served to force the ego to curb the
  unsatisfactory drives of the id.
• Dreams were the repression of unconscious desires
• Oedipus Complex for men (Electra for women)
• Desire for the parent of the opposite sex

73
Social Darwinism and Racism

• Herbert Spencer (1820-1903)
• British philosopher who applied Darwins ideas to
  society
• Societies are organisms that evolve through time
  by struggling with their environment.
• Progress came from the struggle for survival
• Nationalism and Racism
• Friedrich von Bernhardi (German general)
• Thought war was necessary for culture
• Evolutionary role survival of the fittest
• Houston Stewart Chamberlain (1855-1927)
• The Foundations of the Nineteenth Century, 1890
• Claimed Aryans were the creators of Western
  culture
• Modern day Germans were the pure successors of
  Aryans
• Aryan must be prepared to fight for Western
  Civilization

74
The Attack on Christianity

• Challenges to Established Churches
• Scientific inquiry
• Modernization migration to the city weakened
  the base of the church set in village cultures
• New political movements governments
  reestablished ties with the churches after 1848
  Revolutions
• Anticlericalism backlash against union of
  church state after 1848 revolutions
• Biblical higher criticism
• Ernst Renan wrote Life of Jesus
• Questioned the historical accuracy of the Bible
• Denied the divinity of Jesus

75

• Response of the Churches
• Rejection Pope Pius IX, Syllabus of Errors
• Rigid stand against nationalism, socialism,
  religious toleration, freedom of speech press
• Adaptation modernism
• New view on the Bible as a book of moral ideas
• Encouraged Christians to get involved in social
  reform
• Catholic Church condemned Modernism in 1907
• Compromise Pope Leo XIII
• Permitted the teaching of evolution as a theory
• De Rerum Novarum (1891)
• Asserted that socialism was Christian principle
• upheld right to private property
• condemned evils of capitalism
• urged followers to join unions social reform
  groups (attempt to reconnect with the working
  class)

76
Modernism in the Arts

• Impressionism
• Use of light and color
• Left the studio went out to paint what they saw
• Camille Pissarro (1830-1903)
• Beginning of impressionist art
• Urged artists to paint nature, people and their
  surroundings
• Capture light, running water, emotion
• Berthe Morisot (1841-1895)
• Female artist who used lighter colors and flowing
  brush strokes
• Post-Impressionism
• Kept the Light and color of impression and
  combined it with structure and form
• Shifted from objective reality to subjective
  reality
• Viewed as the beginning of modern art
• Paul Cezanne (1839-1906) Woman with Coffee Pot
• Vincent van Gogh (1853-1890) Starry Night

77

• The Search for Individual Expression
• Photography
• Cubism Pablo Picasso (1881-1973) Les Demoiselles
  dAvignon
• Use of geometric designs to re-create reality
• Abstract Expressionism Vasily Kandinsky
  (1866-1944) Abstract painting
• Modernism in Music
• Included
• Attraction to the exotic, nationalist themes,
  folk music and the lure of the primitive
• Edvard Grieg (1843 1907)
• Scandinavian composer who used folk music to
  present nationalist themes
• Claude Debussy (1862 1918)
• Impressionist musician who used music to evoke
  the emotion of poetry
• Igor Stravinsky (1882-1971) Rites of Spring
• Classic example of modernism in music
• Use of pulsating rhythm, sharp dissonances, and
  sensual dancing caused a riot at its debut in
  Paris
• Sergei Diaghilev (1872-1929)
• Russian ballet director who worked with
  Stravinsky

78
Jews in the European Nation-State

• By the end of the 19th century, Jews were
  emancipated in most countries with some
  restrictions
• Allowed them to get involved in politics and move
  out of the ghetto
• Anti-Semitism
• Revival of hatred towards Jews
• Portrayed as the murders of Jesus
• Strongest anti-Semitism was in Eastern Europe
  (Germany, Austria, Russia)
• Persecution in Eastern Europe
• Pogroms (massacres) in Russia
• Emigration
• Jews moved to U.S., Canada Palestine
• The Zionist Movement
• Zionism
• Planned migration to Palestine to form a Jewish
  state