The%20Early%20History%20and%20Scope%20of%20Psychology

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The Early History and Scopeof Psychology
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Define Psychology

• The science of behavior and mental processes

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Early History

• Socrates, and his student Plato (Greek
  Philosophers)
• The mind and the body are two separate entities,
  and do not influence each other. There are
  mental reasons for behavior and there are bodily
  causes of behavior, and they act independent of
  each other.

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• Socrates, and his student Plato (Greek
  Philosophers)
• Human behavior and knowledge is pre-disposed and
  genetically built-in (Nature).
• IE. If you are intelligent, you were born with a
  smart brain. If you are athletic, you were born
  with strong muscles and balance. If you are
  violent, depressed, or forgetful, you were born
  with a brain disorder.

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• Aristotle (Greek Philosopher)
• The mind and the body are inseparable and each
  influences the other with regards to behavior.

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• Aristotle (Greek Philosopher)
• Human behavior and knowledge is not preexisting
  it grows from the experiences stored in our
  memories (Nurture).
• IE. You are violent because you watched it on
  television. You are smart because you studied.
  You are kind because you were loved.

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• John Locke (British Philosopher)
• Tabula rasa (Empiricism) literally means blank
  slate
• The theory that the mind is at birth a "blank
  slate" without rules for processing data, and
  that data is added and rules for processing it
  formed solely by our sensory experiences. It also
  emphasized the individual's freedom to author his
  or her own soul. Every experience is new and
  open to individual interpretation.

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• IE. There is no heredity or preconceived notions
  regarding the world. Therefore, my decision to
  drink or not to drink is based solely on my
  sensory experience of the taste and effects of a
  glass of wine, not my parents alcoholism. My
  grades in school and my professional goals are
  based on my study and work habits, not my
  parents idiocy.

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• Rene Descartes (French Philosopher)
• The body and the mind are separate entities,
  though they do interact and communicate through
  the spirits of the brain, and the passages of
  the body. Knowledge is inborn as well.
• Early dissections led to the early understanding
  of mind/body connections (biological psychology).

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• Francis Bacon (English Scientist)
• Stressed the scientific principles of observation
  and experimentation when evaluating human
  behavior

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• Wilhelm Wundt
• German professor who established the first
  psychology laboratory at the University of
  Leipzig, Germany.

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• William James (Functionalism)
• Focused on the physical functions of the brain
  and the body, and how they worked together

• Also reintroduced the Darwinist theory of human
  evolution, and that body and brain functions
  evolved as humans learned about and experienced
  the world

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• Edward Titchener (Structuralism)
• Measured and compared individuals definitions,
  memories, and perceptions of smells, sights,
  memories, etc., and how their own individual
  experiences caused them to behave differently
  towards similar items (Introspection)

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• Structuralists break human experiences down into
  their smallest parts in order to understand the
  entire behavior.

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• IE. While explaining a rose, I think about a
  rose in this way, and heres how I describe the
  experience of smelling a rose, seeing a rose,
  holding a rose, etc. When you explain a rose,
  the experience may be completely different and
  stored in the brain differently.

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Humanistic Perspective

• Humanists believe that we choose most of our
  behaviors and these choices are guided by
  physiological, emotional, or spiritual needs.
  Humanists stress free will and individual choice.
• Abraham Maslow and Carl Rogers

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• IE. An introverted person chooses to limit
  social contact with others because he or she
  finds that social needs are better satisfied by
  contact with a few close friends rather than
  large groups.

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Psychoanalytic Perspective

• Psychoanalysts believe that the unconscious mind
  (a part of our mind that we do not have conscious
  control over or access to) controls much or our
  thought and action.
• Sigmund Freud

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• IE. An introverted person avoids social
  situations because of a repressed memory of
  trauma in childhood involving an acutely
  embarrassing experience at a party.

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Biopsychology (Neuroscience)

• Biopsychologists explain human behavior in terms
  of biological processes, including genetics,
  hormones, and brain (dys)functions.

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• IE. An introverted person may lack a certain gene
  for sociability, or an extroverted person may be
  producing an overabundance of a particular
  hormone. There may be a dysfunctional frontal
  lobe.

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Evolutionary Perspective

• Evolutionary psychologists (sociobiologists)
  examine human behavior in terms of natural
  selection and survival traits.
• Charles Darwin

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• IE. An extroverted person carries a social
  genetic trait based upon the need to make friends
  or allies, thus increasing their chances of
  survival. An introverted person may have a
  genetic quality that precludes isolation as a way
  to avoid predators, thus increasing their chances
  for survival.

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Behavioral Perspective

• Behavioral psychologists explain human thought
  and behavior by looking strictly at observable
  behaviors and what reaction organisms get in
  response to specific behaviors.
• Ivan Pavlov, John Watson, B.F. Skinner

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• IE. An introverted person may be withdrawn and
  shy because they are punished for speaking at
  home. An extrovert may get monetary rewards for
  garnering attention.

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Cognitive Perspective

• Cognitive psychologists explain human behavior in
  terms of how we interpret, process, and remember
  environmental events. The rules that humans use
  to view the world are important in explaining
  what we think and do.

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• IE. An introvert does not socialize much because
  they interpret friendship as pity, or whispered
  conversations as criticism. An extrovert may
  think that the world is a happy and safe place,
  and therefore all people are potential friends.

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Social-Cultural Perspective

• Sociocultural psychologists emphasize the
  influence of groups and culture on the way that
  we think and act.

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• IE. An female introvert lives in a society where
  women are not allowed to talk, vote, or own land.
  An extrovert lives in a society where gluttony
  and extravagance is encouraged.

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Fields in Psychology

• What can I do with a degree in Psychology?

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Fields in Psychology

• Applied v. Basic Psychology
• Applied refers to practical and interactive
  psychology.
• Basic refers mainly to the research fields of
  psychology.

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Therapy

• Mental and physical rehabilitation regarding
  mental disorders.
• Can include medications, in/out patient services,
  counseling, etc.

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School

• Assisting school-aged children, adolescence
  issues, counseling, etc.

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Experimental

• Conduct research on learning, memory, sensation,
  perception, cognition, motivation, etc.

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Developmental

• Study mental and physical growth from prenatal
  through childhood, adolescence, adulthood, and
  into old age.

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Social

• Study how people influence each others attitudes,
  prejudices, norms, interpersonal attractions, etc.

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Clinical

• Diagnosis and treatment of troubled people.
• Career, marriage, stress counseling.

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Industrial/Organizational

• Practical issues of selecting and training a
  workforce.
• Productivity, job stress, motivation, automation.

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Forensic Psychology

• Provide advice to legislators, judges,
  correctional officers, lawyers and the police
• Is called upon, for example, to serve as an
  expert witness, diagnose and treat incarcerated
  and probationed offenders and screen and
  evaluate personnel in the law enforcement and
  judicial systems

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Sports Psychology

• Issues and techniques of sport-specific
  psychological assessment and mental skills
  training for performance enhancement and
  satisfaction with participation
• Goal-setting, visualization and performance
  planning, self-confidence, eating disorders,
  overtraining and burnout counseling, team
  building, sportsmanship

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Cognitive

• Experiment with how we perceive, think, and solve
  problems

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• What is the difference between a psychologist
  and a psychiatrist?

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Psychology v. Psychiatry

• Psychiatry is the study of mental disorders.
• Psychiatrists are medical doctors and can
  prescribe medications to treat the physical and
  mental causes of psychological disorders.

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AP Psychology Chapter Two

• Methods of Research

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• How do psychologists collect data about
  behavior?

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• Regardless of the method used, all research is
  based on the Scientific Method of Psychology
• Scientific means systematic, testable, and
  objective.

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• What are the three main principles that guide
  the Scientific Method of Psychology?

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• Step 1 Theory
• Step 2 Hypotheses
• Step 3 Research and Observation

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Step 1

• Theories organize known facts and summarizes
  current research in the field. What do we
  already know?

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Step 2

• A hypothesis is then created as a testable
  prediction based on what is currently known and
  what we want to find out. What do we want to
  know more about?

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Step 3

• Research or observation or experiments are
  generated to collect data, which then goes into
  evaluating the hypothesis, which may or may not
  add to the existing theory. What did we find out?

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• What are the two broad types of research that
  psychologists conduct?

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Research Designs

• Quantitative and Qualitative Research

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• Quantitative research emphasizes numbers,
  measurements, deductive logic, statistics,
  control, and experiments.

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• Quantitative researchers use tools, such as
  questionnaires or equipment to collect numerical
  data, and data is in the form of numbers and
  statistics.

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• Qualitative research emphasizes natural settings,
  observation, understanding, themes, verbal
  narratives, and flexible designs.

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• Qualitative data is in the form of words,
  pictures or objects.

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• What are some examples of qualitative research
  methods?

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I. Naturalistic Observation

• Study behavior in its natural context.
  Spontaneous behavior in a subjects natural
  environment. No interaction with the subject.

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• IE. If you want to study the interactive
  behavior of a specific breed of gorillas, you
  would need to go to where the gorillas live in
  nature (not a zoo). You would need to observe
  them without their knowledge, and without
  manipulating anything.

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Bias

• Situation in which a factor unfairly increases
  the likelihood of a researcher reaching a
  particular conclusion

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Example of Bias

• I am researching teenagers behavior and I was
  recently mugged by a group of teenagers am I
  likely to observe teenage behaviors as being
  motivated by evil versus good? Why?

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Bias

• The tendency to notice evidence which supports
  one particular point of view or hypothesis

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Example of Bias

• If my hypothesis is that excessive sugar
  intake causes poor test performance, I will
  readily conclude this as fact when three students
  who failed the test were observed drinking a soda
  prior to the test. Other students who failed and
  other factors are ignored.

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Bias

• Tendency of research subjects to respond in
  certain ways because they know they are being
  observed
• The subjects might try to behave in ways they
  believe the researcher wants them to behave

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II. Case Study

• A case study is one type of observational data
  collection technique in which one individual is
  studied in-depth in order to identify behavioral,
  emotional, and/or cognitive qualities that are
  universally true, on average, of others. Case
  studies often include face-to-face interviews,
  paper and pencil tests, and more.

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• IE. I want to know why Bart killed thirty-five
  people over a twenty-year period of time. I will
  examine the police files, observe and interview
  Bart, talk to his and the victims families, etc.

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III. Survey

• Questionnaires/ interviews. Getting a large
  amount of information from a large group of
  people.

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When Creating A Survey

• Questions need precise answers
• Language and wording must be simple
• IE. 77 of New Yorkers where interested in plants
  and trees, but only 39 where interested in
  botany 48 where interested in fossils, but only
  39 where interested in paleontology 42 where
  interested in rocks and minerals, but 53 where
  interested in Geology

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When Creating A Survey

• Ask questions that wont embarrass or humiliate
• Responders will lie if there is a perceived
  punishment Anonymity is key
• Dont ask morally ambiguous questions keep it
  simple and to the point
• Who the interviewer is will affect the responders
  answers

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When Creating A Survey

• Shortly phrased questions.
• IE. As you know, the term Holocaust usually
  refers to the killing of millions of Jews in Nazi
  death camps during WWII. Does it seem possible
  or does it seem impossible to you that the Nazi
  extermination of the Jew never happened?
• 1 out of 5 Gallup poll responders said that the
  Holocaust never happened due to the phrasing of
  the question

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When Creating A Survey

• Hot Topics/Key Words
• IE. Do you favor an amendment prohibiting
  abortions? gt50 opposed OR Do you favor an
  amendment protecting the life of an unborn child?
  lt30 opposed it

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When Creating A Survey

• Limited Answer Options
• Order of Questions easier to more difficult
  works best
• Fright Terms avoid using terms with big
  repercussions
• IE. Problem V. Crisis, Past V. Dead, Dealt With
  V. Punish

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False Consensus Effect

• Tendency to overestimate the extent to which
  others share our beliefs and behaviors. Skews
  the reports by jumping to large conclusions that
  fit into our pre-conceived ideas.

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• What is an example of a quantitative research
  method?

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IV. Experiment

• An investigation seeking to understand relations
  of cause and effect. The experimenter changes a
  variable (cause), and in turn changes another
  variable (effect). At the same time the
  experimenter hopes to hold all of the other
  variables constant so that they can attribute any
  changes to the manipulation.

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• IE. I want to know if new drug A will help to
  alleviate the symptoms of insomnia. Patients
  will be given different doses at different times
  to see what works and what doesnt. I need to
  control other factors, like mattress softness and
  room temperature, to eliminate them as causes of
  sleep deprivation.

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• How do I create a valid and reliable experiment?

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Step 1 Choose a Hypothesis

• A hypothesis expresses a relationship between two
  variables.
• IE. My hypothesis is that watching violent
  television programs makes people more aggressive.

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Step Two Choose Variables

• Variables are things that are measured,
  controlled, or manipulated in research.

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• The independent variable is the manipulated
  variable.
• IE. Watching television violence is the
  independent variable because I can adjust what
  shows are viewed, for how long, by whom, etc.

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• The dependent variable is measured for change.
• IE. Measuring the change in aggression levels is
  the dependent variable in our experiment because
  it changes based on what is viewed, for how long,
  etc.

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Step Three Operationalize

• When you operationalize your variables, you are
  explaining how you will measure them.

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• IE. The operational definition of the
  independent variable (what defines a violent
  show?) would be shows that have scenes of
  fighting, bloodshed, use of weapons, injury,
  kicks, punches, etc.
• IE. The operational definition of the dependent
  variable (what constitutes an increase in
  aggressive behavior?) would be an increase in
  agitation or tenseness, increased vocal volume,
  threats of bodily harm, kicks, punches, throwing
  objects, etc.

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Step Four Identify Potential Extraneous
Variables/Confounding Variables

• It is important to make sure that during the
  experiment as many other factors that are NOT
  part of the therapy are NOT included. Any factor
  or variable that causes an effect (or potential
  affects) other than the variable being studied is
  considered an extraneous variable.

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• IE. An extraneous variable in our experiment
  would be a phone call from a solicitor during a
  program, the viewer receiving mail including a
  poor report card, a viewer stubbing their toe
  during a show, alcohol abuse, etc. All of these
  could increase aggressiveness, but are not
  related to viewing violent television.

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Step Five Identify Who You Will Be Testing

• The individuals on which the research will be
  conducted are called subjects (or participants).
  
• A small group of subjects are drawn from a larger
  potential population.
• IE. Our subjects will be drawn from the overall
  population of 12th grade males at Middletown High
  School.

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Step Six How Do We Decide Who Will Be Subjects,
and Who Wont?

• Since we cant realistically test all 12th grade
  males at Middletown High School, we have to
  create a representative sample of the population
  so that we can generalize our findings to the
  whole group.

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Method 1 Rigorous Control Design

• Designing an experiment with specific,
  hand-picked groups in mind.
• IE. Only testing males, 18 years old, in AP
  Psychology.

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Method 2 Sample Design

• A sample is a representation of the entire
  population.
• A random sample allows that every member of an
  overall population has an equal chance to be in
  the sample.
• IE. Drawing names from a hat.

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Method 3 Stratified Sample

• Subdivide the population into at least two
  different subpopulations that share the same
  characteristics, then draw a random sample from
  each group.
• IE. Surveying views on Equal Rights. Split your
  human population into men and women, and then
  randomly draw eight mens and womens names.

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Method 4 Systematic Sample

• Select a starting point from your population and
  then select every ?th participant.
• IE. Merck corporation wants test the
  effectiveness of a new aspirin on their 100,000
  employees. Get a roster of employees, start at
  1, and then choose every 100th name on the list.

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Method 5 Cluster Sampling

• Divide your population into multiple subgroups,
  randomly choose a subgroup to test, and then test
  the entire population of that subgroup.
• IE. Split the country up into geographic regions
  (East Coast, Midwest, etc.). Randomly choose a
  region to test, and then test every person in
  those states.

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Method 6 Convenience Sampling

• Use a population that is readily available.
• IE. Test your neighbors, your family, your
  co-workers, a passer-by on the street.

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Step Seven Assignment

• Once you have chosen your subjects to study, you
  must assign them to one of two groups those that
  will be manipulated, and those that wont.

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Group 1 Experimental Group

• The experimental group receives the independent
  variable and is manipulated throughout the
  experiment.

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Group 2 Control Group

• The control group does not receive the
  independent variable.

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• IE. In our television violence experiment, those
  in the experiment group will watch varying
  degrees of violent program, for varying lengths
  of time, etc., and their changes in levels of
  aggression measured.

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• IE. In our television violence experiment, the
  control group will be shown a variety of
  non-violent programming in order to create a
  baseline to compare the experiment group against.

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Method 1 Random Assignment

• Random assignment means that the subjects have an
  equal chance of being placed into each group. If
  we allow subjects to choose their own group, we
  may have a subject-relevant confounding variable.
  

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Subject-Relevant Confounding Variables

• A subject-relevant confounding variable would
  allow those people that liked violent movies or
  were prone to violence already to choose to be in
  the experimental group. We therefore could not
  accurately find that viewing violence led to
  aggression.

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• To help avoid this confounding variable, we
  prescribe a single-blind design. The subjects do
  not know whether they have been randomly placed
  in the control or experiment group.

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Method 2 Group Matching

• When assigning members to the experiment or
  control group, it is important that the
  characteristics of both groups need to be as
  similar as possible.

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• IE. After rigorously or randomly determining our
  subjects, as many white, black, tall, short,
  overweight, slim members should be in the control
  group as there are in the experiment group.

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Step Eight Address Other Potential Issues With
Experiments

• Situation-relevant confounding variables refer to
  making sure that the situations that the
  experiment and control groups are placed in are
  exactly the same. We must have equivalent
  environments.
• IE. We cannot have those watching violent films
  in a large auditorium, and those viewing sitcoms
  in a small living room.

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Experimenter Bias

• Experimenter Bias occurs when the experimenter
  unconsciously treats members of the control and
  experiment groups differently, which increases
  the chances of confirming their hypothesis.
• IE. The experimenter gives soda to the control
  group, and beer to the violent viewers. The
  experimenter speaks more abruptly with the
  violence crowd (inciting them?).

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• To help avoid this type of confounding
  variable, we employ a double-blind design, where
  neither the subjects nor the researcher may know
  which is the control or the experiment group. A
  third-party has the appropriate records so that
  the date can be analyzed later.

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• The Hawthorne Effect refers to the fact that some
  subjects will alter their behaviors simply
  because they know that they are part of an
  experiment, regardless of what is being done to
  them.

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• The Placebo Effect refers to the phenomenon that
  a patient's symptoms can be alleviated by an
  otherwise ineffective treatment, apparently
  because the individual expects or believes that
  it will work.

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• Hindsight Bias is the tendency to believe, once
  the outcome is already known of course, that you
  would have foreseen itthat even though it's over
  and you know the outcome, you knew it all along.

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• Overconfidence occurs when we tend to think that
  we know more than we do. Make over-generalization
  s when reporting results, forcing results into
  preconceived hypothesis to say I told you so,
  instead of letting the results speak for
  themselves, etc.

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REMEMBER !!!

• Only experimental data can conclusively
  demonstrate causal relations between variables
  (A causes B to happen).

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V. Correlation Study

• A correlation study is a statistical measure of
  the relationship between two or more variables
  without assigning a cause and effect relationship.

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Correlation Study

• You cannot conclude a cause and effect
  relationship from this statistical analysis you
  can only imply or predict a strong or a weak
  relationship between variables !!!

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• IE. Student scores on the SAT are collected, as
  are senior year GPAs. We want to see if a high
  GPA correlates to a high SAT score. We cant say
  one causes the other, but we can imply that
  students who have high/low GPAs score high/low
  on SATs. Can we use GPA as a predictor of SAT
  performance?

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• Once I have completed my research, how do I
  present my findings ?

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Descriptive Statistics

• Descriptive Statistics describe a set of data.

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• If I want to report findings from an observation
  or a survey, I may want to use a frequency
  distribution.
• A frequency distribution may be a simple chart, a
  list, or a graph.
• A graph of information always plots the frequency
  along the y-axis, and the subject of the graph
  along the x-axis.

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Measures of Central Tendency

• Measures of central tendency provide statistics
  that indicate the average or typical score in the
  distribution. There are three measures of central
  tendency
• Mean
• Median
• Mode

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Mean

• The mean is the arithmetic average of all the
  scores in the distribution. It is calculated by
  adding all the scores in the distribution and
  then dividing this sum by the number of scores.

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Median

• The median is the middle score of the
  distribution, the point that divides a
  rank-ordered distribution into halves containing
  an equal number of scores. Thus 50 of the scores
  lie below the median and 50 lie above the
  median.

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Mode

• The mode is simply the score in the distribution
  that occurs most frequently.

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Graphing Measures of Central Tendency

• When graphing the mean, median and mode of a
  distribution, roughly speaking, a distribution
  has positive skew if the right tail is longer and
  negative skew if the left tail is longer.

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Positively Skewed

• This distribution has a positive skew. Note that
  the mean is larger than the median.

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• IE. In a neighborhood of relatively low incomes,
  a few millionaires move in. Those few high
  salaries will inflate the mean (average), but the
  median will remain relatively low.

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Negatively Skewed

• This distribution has a negative skew. The median
  is larger than the mean.

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• IE. In a particular well-to-do neighborhood, a
  few low-income residents move in. The overall
  average income will drop a bit, but the median
  will remain relatively high.

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Measures of Variability

• Measures of variability show how spread out the
  distribution of scores is from the mean, or how
  much dispersion or scatter exists in the
  distribution. If there is a large degree of
  dispersion, that is, if the scores are very
  dissimilar, we say the distribution has a large
  or high variability, or variance. If the scores
  are very similar, there is a small degree of
  dispersion and a small variance.

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Measures of Variability

• Range
• Standard Deviation

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Range

• The range is simply the numerical difference
  between the highest and lowest scores in the
  distribution.

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Standard Deviation

• The measure of variability used most often in
  research is the standard deviation, a statistic
  that indicates the average distance of the scores
  from the mean of the distribution.

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• IE. Our class took Unit Exam 2. I scored a 76.
  I want to know how well I did in relation to the
  rest of the class to see whether or not that
  score was good or bad. I need to figure out what
  the class average was, figure out the standard
  deviation from the mean, and Ill know how well I
  did.

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Standard Deviation
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Graphing Standard Deviation

• Find the mean of your distribution set.
• Calculate the SD on your calculator.
• The mean is set at 0.
• 1 and -1 are your SD above and below the mean.
• IE. Your mean is 56 with a SD of 6. 1 would be
  62, and -1 would be 50.
• Calculate - 2 and - 3 in the same manner.

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Graphing Standard Deviation

• What does this tell us?
• If the mean of a set of class scores on a unit
  exam was 72, with a SD of 8, 68 of students
  scored between a 64 and an 80. Your score of a
  76 would be close to being better than 68 of the
  rest of the class.
• Approximately 95 of the class scored between a
  56 and an 88. Your score of a 50 would indicated
  that roughly 96 of the class did better than you
  on the test.

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Graphing Data

• Scatterplot A graphed cluster of dots that
  represent the values of two variables.

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• The SLOPE of the points suggests whether there is
  a positive, negative, or non-existent
  relationship between two variables.

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• POSITIVE CORRELATION as one set of scores
  increases, so does the other

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• NEGATIVE CORRELATION as one set of scores goes
  up, another set goes down

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• NO CORRELATION

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• No correlation relates to a score of 0.00
• A positive correlation ranges from 0.00 to 1.00
• A negative correlation ranges from 0.00 to -1.00

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• How closely the dots are to each other along the
  line indicates the strength or weakness of the
  correlation as well

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Research Methods

• APA Ethical Guidelines

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• The APA American Psychological Association
• Responsible for setting the ethical guidelines
  for human and animal research.
• The IRB Institutional Review Board
• Part of the APA responsible for reviewing
  research proposals for ethical violations and/or
  procedural errors.

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Animal Research

• Ethical studies using laboratory animals must
  meet the following requirements

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• 1. The must have a clear scientific purpose.
• The research must answer a specific, important
  scientific question. Animals are chosen based on
  their ability to help answer the question
  proposed.

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• 2. The animals must be cared for and housed in a
  humane way.

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• 3. The animal subjects must be acquired in a
  legal manner.
• The animals used in the experiment must be
  purchased from accredited companies, and if
  trapped in the wild, they must be trapped in a
  humane manner.

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• 4. The experiment must be designed with
  procedures in place that employ the least amount
  of suffering on the part of the animals.

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• Research involving human subjects must meet the
  following standards

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• 1. Informed Consent
• Participants must know that they are involved in
  research and give their consent.

154

• 2. Coercion
• Participation in a research study must be
  voluntary.

155

• 3. Anonymity/Confidentiality
• The participants privacy must be protected. No
  identities and actions may be revealed. A
  researched must not share any results that could
  match a participant and their specific responses.
  A researcher will not identify the source of any
  data as well.

156

• 4. Risk
• Participants cannot be placed at any significant
  mental or physical risk.

157

• 5. Debriefing Procedures
• Participants must be told the purpose of the
  study and provided with ways to contact the
  researcher about the study results.