Chapter 7 Assessing and Teaching Reading: Phonological Awareness, Phonics, and Word Recognition

1
Chapter 7 Assessing and Teaching Reading
Phonological Awareness, Phonics, and Word
Recognition

• By Margaret, Marlo, Sarah and Branda

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Teaching Reading

• Special Education teachers spend a great deal of
  time teaching reading. Why is it so important?
• Reading is a prerequisite skill for content-area
  classes such as social studies and science.
• Reading is essential for employment.
• If students do not learn to read by the end of
  third grade, their chances of having reading
  difficulties through adulthood is 50.

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Reading and Reading Instruction

• When teaching reading, there are two overarching
  concepts
• Reading is a skilled and strategic process in
  which learning to decode and read words
  accurately and rapidly is essential Reading
  requires using the attentional, perceptual,
  memory, and retrieval processes to automatically
  identify or decode words. Decoding or word
  recognition is the process of automatically
  recognizing words. When a word is unknown, the
  reader uses syntax and context to help decode.
• Students with learning disabilities have a
  particularly difficult time demonstrating how to
  blend and segment words. This causes them to
  focus more on the process of decoding rather than
  comprehension.

4
Emergent and Beginning Readers

• Emergent Readers
• Pretend to read favorite print.
• Can read what they have written, even if no one
  else can.
• Recognize some concrete words (i.e. names,
  environment)
• Recognize and generate rhyming words.
• Name letters and words that begin with that
  letter.

• Beginning Readers
• Identify letters by name
• Say the common sounds of letters.
• Blend the sounds represented by letters into
  decodable words.
• Read irregular words.
• Read words, then sentences, and then longer text.

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Reading and Reading Instruction (contd)

• The second overarching concept is
• Reading entails understanding the text and
  depends on active engagement and interpretation
  by the reader When readers read they make
  predictions, summarize, question and clarify when
  concepts are not clear.
• Students who have trouble reading do not
  automatically monitor their comprehension or
  engage in strategic behavior to restore meaning.

6
Phonological Awareness, Letter-Sound
Correspondence, and Phonics

• Phonological Awareness knowing and demonstrating
  that spoken language can be broken down into
  smaller units (words, syllables, phonemes), which
  can be manipulated within an alphabetic system.
• Phonemic awareness is the ability to recognize
  the smallest sound units of spoken language and
  how they can be separated, blended and
  manipulated.
• In order to apply these skills to reading, they
  need to understand phonics (how sound maps to
  print or knowing how the letter sounds and names
  relate to each other).
• Children who have problems with blending and
  segmenting have the most difficulty reading.

7
Development of Phonological Awareness

• The primary focus of phonemic awareness with
  young children is not rhyming, but rather the
  focus of individual sounds and how each sound can
  be represented by a letter or group of letters.
  Skills such as rhyming and alliteration come
  later.
• The most important goal of phonemic awareness is
  learning to manipulate sounds by blending and
  segmenting. Linking sounds to print should be the
  immediate goal.
• Developmental sequence is important when teaching
  reading. For example, teaching segmenting and
  blending words and syllables before segmenting
  and blending onset-rimes and phonemes.
• Children always develop skills at different
  times, therefore instruction at phoneme level
  should never be delayed due to lack of a skill.

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Teaching Phonological Awareness and Phonics

• The majority students who are at risk for reading
  difficulties can benefit most from explicit
  instruction phonological awareness, particularly
  blending, segmenting, and manipulating sounds.
• Teaching phonological awareness includes
• Listening for words with the same sound
• Clapping the number of words in a sentence,
  syllables in a words, and phonemes in words
• Blending and segmenting words by syllables and
  sounds
• Segmenting and manipulating sounds and syllables

9
Elkonin Procedure

• The Elkonin Procedure is a technique used to
  assist in blending and segmenting skills.
• This is a phonological task where students listen
  to a word and push a marker, block, or other
  small object into a printed square for each sound
  they hear. As students gain knowledge of the
  letter-sound relationships they can write letters
  in the boxes.
• When teaching students who are having difficulty,
  it is important to know the difficulties and
  focus instruction according to the level of
  development.

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Guidelines for Teaching Phonological Awareness

• Consider the students levels of development and
  the tasks that need to be mastered.
• MODEL each activity.
• Use manipulative and movement to make auditory
  and oral tasks more visible.
• Move from easier to more difficult tasks
  considering level of development (syllables,
  onset-rimes, phonemes), phoneme position
  (initial, final, medial), number of sounds in a
  word, and phonological features of the words
  (consonants are easier than stops or clipped
  sounds).
• Provide feedback and opportunities for practice
  and review.
• Make learning fun.

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Response to Intervention

• How do we know if students are responding to
  instruction?
• Have students received scientifically based
  reading instruction from their classroom teacher?
• Have students received adequate opportunities to
  respond, obtain feedback, and see modeling to
  scaffold their learning?
• How does the performance of students with low
  response compare to other students in the class?
• Have the students with low phonemic awareness
  received small group opportunities?
• Is progress monitoring data available to show the
  scope of the students progress?

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Progress Monitoring

• Progress monitoring in phonemic awareness assists
  teachers in identifying students who are at risk
  for failing to acquire phonemic awareness skills.
  
• These tests and progress-monitoring measures may
  be useful to make decisions about what methods
  will accurately measure student progress
• STAR Early Literacy computer-adaptive procedure
  that provides ongoing assessment of early
  literacy skills.
• AIMSweb Systems Offer progress monitoring tools
  for letter naming, letter sound, phoneme
  segmentation, and nonsense word fluency.
• YOP-Singer Test of Phoneme Segmentation- Students
  segment phonemes and are given credit if they say
  all the sounds in the word correctly.
• Phone-Segmentation Fluency- Students are given 60
  seconds to get as many phonemes correct as
  possible.
• Comprehensive Test of Phonological Processing
  (CTOPP)- Assesses phonological awareness,
  phonological memory, and rapid naming ability.

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Teaching Letter-Sound Correspondences Consonants

• The largest division of phonemes is consonants
  (C) or vowels (V).
• Voiced and Voiceless consonants can be taught by
  allowing students to place their fingers on their
  larynxes and feeling the vibrations. This method
  allows them to decode or spell a word.
• Important points to remember when teaching
  consonants
• CVC words that begin with continuants(can be
  blended smoothly with the next sound f, s, v, w,
  z, sh, zh, th) and end with stops(clipped sounds
  b, d, g ,j, k, p, t) are generally the easiest
  for blending the sounds.
• In some programs, when blending stops it is
  suggested to bounce the stop sounds , such as
  /b-b-b-a-t-t-t/ for bat.
• Nasal sounds are difficult to hear, sound
  different in the middle of words, and are often
  omitted or substituted by emergent readers and
  writers.
• Students may have problems hearing the difference
  between /wh/ and /w. because many Americans
  pronounce them in the same manner (witch and
  which).
• The sounds /r/ and /l/ can be difficult for some
  students because they ate some of the last sounds
  students learn to articulate and because their
  pronunciation varies across languages.
• When students omit sounds in words it is helpful
  to have them compare the words in written form to
  see the letter they have omitted.

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Teaching Letter- Sound Correspondences Vowels

• The vowel sounds have different spelling
  patterns. Sometimes the same spelling pattern has
  different sounds (ea in beat and bread).
• For students with decoding difficulties, it is
  helpful to teach the frequency of the sounds for
  a vowel combination so when decoding an
  unfamiliar word, they can try the various sounds.
  
• Schwa is the vowel sound that is often found in
  unaccented syllables (suppose, familiar, sofa,
  mission) and is the most frequently occurring
  vowel sound.
• Students who are learning English as a second
  language may not have fluency in all English
  sounds.
• Common phonological confusions
• /b/ pronounced as /p/, /v/ pronounced as /b/,
  /ch/ pronounced as /sh/, /j/ pronounced as /h/,
  /l/ pronounced as /y/

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Guidelines for Teaching Letter- Sound
Correspondences

• Teaching a core set of frequently used consonants
  and short vowel sounds that represent clear
  sounds and nonreversible letter forms (/a/, /i/,
  /d/, /f/, /g/, /h/, /l/, /n/, /p/, /s/, /t/).
• Beginning immediately to blend and segment sounds
  to read and spell the words and read the words in
  decodable text.
• Separating the introduction of letter sounds with
  similar auditory or visual features.
• Using a consistent keyword to assist students in
  hearing and remembering the sound (a for apple).
• Teaching that some letters can represent more
  than one sound.
• Teaching that different letters can make the same
  sound (s and c).
• Teaching that sound scan be represented by a
  single letter or combination of letters.
• Adding a kinesthetic component by having students
  trace or write the letter as they say the sound.
• Having students use mirrors and feel their mouths
  to see and feel how sounds are different.
• Color- coding consonant and vowel so that the two
  categories of sound are highlighted.

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Letter-Sound Correspondences

• Knowing letter-sound correspondences is a key
  element in understanding the alphabetic principle
  and learning to decode and spell unknown words.
• However, if letter-sound relationships are not
  put to use, they will be ineffective.
• Students need to understand the purpose for the
  relationships and how to apply them to reading
  and writing activities.
• Students must be able to apply knowledge in
  phonological awareness, letter-sound
  relationships, and the alphabetic principle to
  word identification and decoding.

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Word Identification, Decoding, and Word Study

• By Sarah

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Whats a Sight Word?

• A word a student can read quickly and
  automatically with little delay
• Accessed from memory

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Decoding Strategies for Identifying Words

• Phonics Analysis
• Onset-Rime
• Synthetic and Analytic Phonics
• Structure Analysis
• Syllabication
• Automatic Word Recognition
• Syntax and Semantic

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Phonic Analysis

• Identify and Blend Letter-Sound Correspondence
  into Words
• Converting letters in to sounds
• Blending sounds to form a word
• Searching memory to find a known word that
  resembles those blended sounds.

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Ways to Teach Phonics

• Cue the student to say each sound and then have
  them say it fast.
• Demonstrate and have the student point to each
  letter as they say the sound and then have the
  student sweep their hand under the word when
  saying it.
• Place letters apart when saying the sounds, and
  then push the letters together when you say it
  fast.
• Begin with a simple VC and CVC words then move to
  more complex sound patterns

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Onset-Rime

• Use common spelling patterns to decode words by
  blending.
• Also know as word families

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Synthetic and Analytic Phonics

• Teaching sound by sound
• ( /p/ /a/ /n/) pan

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Structure Analysis

• Use knowledge of word structures such as compound
  words, root words, suffixes, prefixes, endings to
  decode words and assist with meaning

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Syllabication

• Use common types of syllables
• When teaching emphasize that each syllable has
  one vowel sound
• Game time

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Automatic Word Recognition

• Automatically recognize high frequency words and
  less phonetically frequent words
• Look around the room

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Syntax and Semantics

• Word Order (syntax)
• Context (semantics)
• Ask the student
• Does that make sense?
• Does that sound right?

• Decoding Steps
• Phonics
• Structural Analysis
• Syllabication
• Then cross check from comprehension
  (syntax/semantics)

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Explicit Code Instruction

• Marlo

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How can the use of explicit and implicit code
instruction be compared?

• Jamal
• Third Grader
• Lowest reading level in his class (1st grade)
• Not making progress
• Teacher helps him pronounce 30 of words
• Cannot remember previously know words
• Knows fewer than 30 sight words
• Applies inconsistent strategies
• Has difficulty with letter-sound relationships
  (cannot sound-out)
• Has difficulty blending
• Generally gets the meaning of a text
• Good oral skills
• Good life references
• Math skills are third grade

• Lupita
• Third Grader
• Reading at a 1st grade level
• Sight vocabulary of 40 words in Spanish and 25 in
  English
• Is in a bilingual program that initially taught
  reading in Spanish and then transitioned to more
  English last year
• Reading is slow and laborious
• Has difficulty remembering words
• Decoding strategies rely on sounding out words
• Does not know many of the letter-sound
  relationships
• Has problems blending
• Oral language in both languages is low
• Shy about responding in class
• Basic math is understood but not word problems

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Tips for the Beginning

• In the beginning
• Determine students current strategies as well as
  what has been used in the past
• Instructional strategies, techniques, approaches
• How consistently, for how long and with what
  success
• If school has RTI
• Data about past reading experiences may be
  available

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Explicit vs. Implicit

• Beginning reading approaches that emphasize
  explicit, direct teaching of phonological
  awareness and word identification strategies that
  rely on using phonics, onset-rime, and structural
  analysis result in greater gains in word
  recognition and comprehension than approaches in
  which phonological awareness and phonics are more
  implicitly taught (National Reading Panel,
  2000).

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Explicit vs. Implicit

• Explicit
• Synthetic phonics
• Builds from part to whole
• Begins with instruction of letters with their
  associated sounds
• Then teaches blending and building (blending
  sounds into syllables and then into words)

• Implicit
• Analytical phonics
• Moves from whole o the smallest part
• Phonemes are not pronounced in isolation
• Analyze a set of words for commonalities
• Use comparison and identification to deduce what
  to read
• Blending and building are not taught
• Use shape, beginning and ending words and context
  clues

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Explicit Code Instruction

• Emphasizes three instructional features
• Systematic instruction of letter-sound
  correspondence
• Scaffolded instruction
• Multiple opportunities for practice and review
• Reading materials for these approaches are
  controlled aka decodable text.

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Explicit Code Instruction

• Linguistic Approach Onset-Rime and Word Families
• Uses controlled text and word families (-at,
  -ight, and ent) to teach word recognition.
  Particularly useful for students with reading
  problems.
• A category CVC words
• B category CVCe words
• C category long-vowels and vowel pairs
• D category r-controlled vowels

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Explicit Code Instruction

• Linguistic Approach Onset-Rime and Word Families
  (Evidence-Based Practice)
• Procedures Built on onset-rime
• In teaching onset-rime, words are segmented and
  blended at the onset-rime level and taught in
  related groups or Word Families
• Readers such as 7-13 give extensive practice with
  word families
• When a student cant identify a word family word
• Synthetic decoding
• Analogy

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Explicit Code Instruction

• Linguistic Approach Onset-Rime and Word Families
  (Evidence-Based Practice)
• Comments and Cautions
• Some students will benefit from onset-rime and
  phoneme level decoding (c-a-t vs c-at)
• Texts provide limited opportunities for
  development of comprehension
• Some words introduced in a family may represent
  unfamiliar concepts such as the fog in the bog.

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Explicit Code Instruction

• Reading Mastery and Corrective Reading
• Highly structured, systematic reading programs
  use direct instruction model for teaching
• Directly teach individual sound-symbol
  relationships, blending of sounds, and how to
  build
• Decoding and comprehension
• Reading Mastery elementary level
• Corrective Reading grades 4 through 12
• Taught in small to medium sized groups

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Explicit Code Instruction

• Reading Mastery and Corrective Reading
  (Evidence-Based Practice)
• Procedures Built on Principles of direct
  instruction
• Some include
• Rely on strategies
• Introduction, guided practice, independent
  practice, review
• One skill at a time
• Prerequisite skills taught first
• Patterns taught before exceptions (gave and made
  before have)
• Easy skills taught before more difficult ones
• Monitor
• Reinforce
• Teachers are given specific procedures and
  scripted lessons
• Corrective Reading Standard Print/ Reading
  Mastery Modified Print at Beginning

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Explicit Code Instruction

• Reading Mastery and Corrective Reading
  (Evidence-Based Practice)
• Comments and Cautions
• Effective for improving reading skills of
  students with reading difficulties and students
  with disadvantaged backgrounds
• Also good for students with behavior problems
• Heavy on oral presentation and responses
• Highly scripted, modifications are difficult
• Non-standard print used in Reading Mastery makes
  access more difficult

40
Explicit Code Instruction

• Phonic Remedial Reading Lessons
• Developed in 1930s for students with mild mental
  retardation
• Direct instruction
• Minimal change
• One response to one symbol
• Progress form easy to hard
• Frequent review and over-learning
• Corrective feedback
• Verbal mediation
• Multisensory learning
• Intensive- to be used with no more than 2 3
  students

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Explicit Code Instruction

• Phonic Remedial Reading Lessons (Evidence-Based
  Practice)
• Procedures
• Developing readiness (learning sound-symbol
  associations)
• Each lesson sound out each word in a line, one
  letter at a time, then give complete word
• Barely any change from lesson to lesson (maybe
  just the first consonant)
• Progress to slowly change more and more of the
  words (first consonant, last consonant, both,
  space between letters)

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Explicit Code Instruction

• Phonic Remedial Reading Lessons (Evidence-Based
  Practice)
• Comments and Cautions
• Systematic and intense
• Places little emphasis on comprehension
• Suggest using other books to give opportunities
  for other identification and comprehension

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Explicit Code Instruction

• English-Language Learners and Reading
  Difficulties
• To What extent are the practices identified for
  phonological awareness and phonics appropriate
  for students who are ELLs?
• If they are appropriate, how can teachers
  facilitate their acquisition of these skills in
  English?
• We know much more about teaching students with
  reading difficulties who are English speaking
  than those who are ELLs.
• Is a growing base of information
• Given direct early instruction in reading
  benefited
• Bilingual students with significant reading
  problems who participated in 22 tutoring sessions
  (explicit approach) significantly improved
  compared to controls
• More structured, systematic approach resulted in
  better outcomes than approaches that didnt
  include these tactics
• Young students taught to read in English made
  many gains and sustained them, outperforming
  comparison students
• Balance is Key

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Explicit Code Instruction

• Multisensory Structured Language Instruction
• Systematic, explicit, using alphabetic principal,
  phonics and structural analysis, decoding and
  incorporate visual, auditory, kinesthetic and
  tactile modalities
• Developed in 1930s
• Build associations between modalities
• Tracing words with finger
• Spelling through writing
• Designed for students with dyslexia or who are
  experiencing difficulties learning to read

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Explicit Code Instruction

• Multisensory Structured Language Instruction
• Instructional Features
• Multisensory presentation
• Moves from easy to difficult and provides review
• Explicit teaching of all concepts, skills and
  strategies
• Systematic practice of decoding and spelling
  skills (word, sentence and text levels)
• Diagnostic teaching (more individual)
• Synthetic methods (parts to whole whole broken
  down to parts)

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Explicit Code Instruction

• Multisensory Structured Language Instruction
  (Evidence-Based Practice)
• Comments and Cautions
• Designed and used as remedial programs for
  students who have not learned to read
  successfully in another program
• Clinical case studies show their benefit when
  teaching older students with reading disabilities
  (make substantial gains)
• Best employed by teachers who have been trained
  in multisensory procedures
• In general, programs emphasize decoding skills an
  do not build comprehension skills (combine)

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Explicit Code Instruction

• Word Study Making Words, Word Building and Word
  Walls
• Stressed as a way of learning relationships
  between speech sounds and print, of building word
  recognition and spelling skills, and of
  developing vocabulary
• Learning and behavior problems opportunities to
  construct words using magnetic letters, letter
  tiles or laminated letters provides experience in
  manipulating sounds to find out how the words are
  affected.
• EX Start with letters /s/, /t/, /r/, /n/, and
  /a/. Ask what two words make the word at? Ask
  students to add a letter sound to the beginning
  to make sat. Progress to using all of the
  magnetic letters to create different words.

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Explicit Code Instruction

• Word Study Making Words, Word Building and Word
  Walls (Evidence-Based Practice)
• Procedures
• Many activities word sorts, building words,
  word walls
• Making words specific set of letters, make
  series of words starting with easiest number of
  letters and moving to harder ones until the
  mystery word (Scratch) is made.
• Step 1
• Give students bag of required letters and have
  them identify them. Teacher writes a numeral on
  the board for the number of letters the students
  are to put in their word. Usually start with two
  such as at. Then moving to three cat or
  art. Eventually use all letters.
• Step 2
• Word Sorting Put up all the words on a sentence
  strip and ask students how they are alike. Have
  them sort by spelling patterns. Find all the c
  words or art words so that students can see
  patterns.
• Step 3
• Making Words Quickly Making Words Log Have
  students write as many words as they can in 2
  minutes using that days letters

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Explicit Code Instruction

• Word Study Making Words, Word Building and Word
  Walls (Evidence-Based Practice)
• Comments and Cautions
• Effective and efficient way to organize word
  identification instruction
• Students report they enjoy the activity
• May be important to develop other activities that
  will teach word families to less able readers

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Implicit Code Instruction

• Branda

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Implicit Code Instruction

• Places more emphasis on context clues (pictures,
  clues, etc.)
• Teaches initial site words
• Emphasis on Sentence level not phoneme level (I
  see dog or I see cat vs. The fat cat sat on a
  mat)

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Implicit Code Instruction Approaches

• Modified Language Experience Approach
• This approach is used for students who have
  difficulty reading
• It can be used individually or in groups
• The teacher uses a story the students writes,
  about events, persons, or things of their choice
  Language experience story
• The students should have experience with the
  topic they choose
• This approach is to be used over several days
• This approach provides a method for teaching
  children initial skills in reading by utilizing
  the students memory, oral language, and
  background experiences (recognition of sight
  words)

53
Implicit Code Instruction continued

• Fernald Method (VAKT)
• This technique has 4 stages through which
  students progress as they learn to identify
  unknown words more effectively.
• Stage one students choose words they do not know
  and trace these word until they are able to write
  each word from memory
• Stage two Student does not need to trace the
  word to learn it. The teacher writes the word.
  Then the student says the word as they write it,
  and writes the word without looking at the word
• Stage three Student is able to learn word
  directly from the printed word.
• Stage four Student is able to recognize new
  words from their similarity to words the student
  has already learned.
• This approach works, but it is very time
  consuming. Only use if other attempts have
  failed.

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Techniques for Building Sight Words

• Sigh word association Procedure
• This technique uses corrective feedback, drill,
  and practice to assist students in associating
  spoken words to written form.
• This technique is useful for students who are
  learning to identify words across various context
  or texts, or students who need more help identify
  new words then their current reading group
  offers.
• When using this strategy remember three important
  cautions, Stress reading text and other decoding
  strategies, make sure students understand the
  meaning of the words, and give students ample
  chances to read these words in context.

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Techniques for Building Sight Word(continued)

• Picture Association Technique
• This technique uses key pictures to help students
  associate a spoken word with its written form.
• This technique allows students to form a visual
  image of the word to facilitate their
  identification of words.
• This should be used as a supplemental technique,
  and the students should be given opportunities to
  read the word in text.

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Techniques for Building Sight Words(continued)

• Sentence-Word Association Technique
• This technique allows students to associate
  unknown words with familiar spoken words, phrase,
  or sentence.

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Other Helpful Techniques to learn unknown words

• Vowel Match
• Provides students with practice in decoding words
  that have various vowel sounds.
• Sight Word Bingo
• This techniques help students to practice
  recognizing words
• Compound Concentration
• Gives students practice in identifying compound
  words, and helps them to understand how to form
  compound words.
• Go Fish for Rimes
• Gives students practice in reading and
  identifying words with rimes.

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• Any Questions?

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