CS/COE0447 Computer Organization

1
CS/COE0447Computer Organization Assembly
Language

• CHAPTER 1 Part 1

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Five Computer Components
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Embedded Computers

• Not directly observable
• Very widely used in many applications
• Examples

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Todays Topics

• Layered approach to computer design
• Machine code example
• Components of ISA
• Computer implementations
• Inside a PC
• IC technology and its trends
• Input/output devices
• Main memory
• Secondary storage
• Network
• IC process overview

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Layered Approach in Computer Design
Computer Architecture or Instruction Set
Architecture
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Machine Code Example
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Components of ISA

• In most cases, a programmers reference manual
  (PRM) will disclose the ISA of a processor
• To understand an ISA, find in PRM
• Data types the processor supports
• Supported instructions and their definitions
• Registers (general-purpose special purpose)
• Processor modes
• Exception mechanism

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Inside a PC

• Integrated Circuits (ICs)
• CPU (Central Processing Unit), companion chipset,
  memory, peripheral I/O chip (e.g., USB, IDE,
  IEEE1394, )
• Printed Circuit (PC) boards
• Substrate for ICs and interconnection
• Distribution of clock, power supply
• Heat dissipation
• Hard disk, CD-RW (DVD-RW), (floppy disk)
• Power supply
• Converts line AC voltage to regulated DC low
  voltage levels
• GND, /-12V, /-5V,
• Chassis
• Holds boards, power supply, and provides physical
  interface for user and other systems
• Connectors and cables

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Integrated Circuits

• Primarily crystaline silicon
• 1mm25mm on a side
• Feature size 90nm 130nm
• 100 1000M transistors
• 25 250M logic gates
• 3 10 metal conductive layers
• CMOS (Complementary Metal Oxide Semiconductor)
  technology

• Package spreads chip-level signal paths to board
  level
• Provides heat dissipation
• Ceramic or plastic with gold wires
• 8 1000 leads
• Various form-factors and shapes

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Printed Circuit (PC) Boards

• Fiberglass or ceramic
• 1 20 conductive layers
• 1 20 inch on a side
• IC packages are mounted and soldered on a board

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Technology Trend (Processor Complexity)
2x transistors/chip every 1.5 years!
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Memory Capacity Trend (DRAM)
1.4x/year or 2x every 2 years 8000x since 1980!
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Processor Performance Trend
Intel P4 2000 MHz (Fall 2001)
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Technology Advances

• Memory
• DRAM capacity 2x / 2 years (since 96)
• 64x size improvement in last decade
• Processor
• Speed (in terms of clock frequency) 2x / 1.5
  years (since 85)
• 100x performance improvement in last decade
• Disk
• Capacity 2x / 1 year (since 97)
• 250x size improvement in last decade

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Your PC After Graduation

• Processor speed
• 68GHz
• Memory capacity
• 4GB8GB
• Disk capacity
• 1000GB or 1TB
• New units Mega to Giga, Giga to Tera, (Tera to
  Peta, Peta to Exa, Exa to Zetta, Zetta to Yotta)
• New, faster serial interfaces for various
  peripherals

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My First PC (_at_college)

• IBM PC AT
• Based on 80286 (80586 is Pentium-1)
• Processor speed
• 20MHz (?) compared to 5,000MHz
• Memory capacity
• 1MB compared to 4000MB
• Disk capacity
• 40MB compared to 1000GB
• No CD-ROM!
• 14 inch monitor (not flat!), VGA (640x480)
• Wheel mouse
• 2 buttons

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Input Devices

• Accepts input from human (or from other machine)
• Desktop computers
• Keyboard
• Mouse (touchpad)
• Joystick
• Servers
• Terminals on network
• Cell phone Embedded computers
• Keypad

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Input Devices, contd

• Mouse
• Wheel mouse (hard to find nowadays)
• Optical mouse
• Takes 1,500 photo shots of LED reflection to
  detect any movement
• Keyboard or keypad
• Not many changes so far
• Web camera
• Voice recognition
• Partly successful
• New input device?

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Output Devices

• Passes information to human (or to other machine)
• Desktop computers
• Display (CRT or LCD)
• Sound
• Servers
• Terminals on network
• Cell phone Embedded computers
• Screen
• Sound
• Vibration

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Output Devices, contd

• Display
• CRT to LCD
• LCD size from 10 inch to 24 inch
• Resolution from 640x480 to 1600x1200
• Sound
• Simple tick to theatre-like effects, 5.1
  channel, etc.

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Main memory

• PC/servers use DRAM (Dynamic RAM)
• SDRAM
• DDR SDRAM
• RDRAM (RAMBUS DRAM)

A typical SDRAM module
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Main memory, contd

• Embedded computers use DRAM or SRAM (or both)
  depending on applications
• On-chip SRAM (embedded SRAM)
• On-chip SDRAM (embedded SDRAM)
• SDRAM
• Mobile SDRAM (1.8V operation)

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Storage

• Secondary storage (cf. main memory)
• Non-volatile
• Stores programs, user-saved data, etc.
• In PC/server domain, magnetic disk (hard-disk) is
  usually used
• In embedded computers, flash memory or ROM is
  usually employed

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Storage, contd
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Storage, contd
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Computer Networks

• Local Area Network (LAN)
• Within limited distance (e.g., in a building)
• Mostly based on Ethernet
• 10Mbps, 100Mbps, 1Gbps, 10Gbps,
• Wide Area Network
• Connecting networks far apart
• At home,
• Modem 14.4Kbps, 28.8Kbps, 33.6Kbps, 56Kbps
• Cable modem/DSL several hundred Kbps several
  Mbps
• Higher-speed DSL technologies
• Proliferation of wireless LAN (IEEE802.11)
• 1 100Mbps

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(Simple) IC Process Overview

• Silicon ingot (silicon cylinder)
• (Blank) Wafers
• Various steps to build circuits on wafers
• Photomask process
• Chemical process
• Mechanical process
• Wafer test to sort out bad parts
• Tested die
• Packaging steps
• Wire bonding
• Material filling
• Marking
• Chip test to sort out bad parts
• Products

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Testing Your Chip

• Function
• The chip is working correctly as intended
• Speed
• The chip is running at 4 GHz as intended
• Speed binning
• Power
• The chip consumes 50 Watt at 4 GHz as intended
• Reliability
• The chip will be operational for 10 years as
  written on manual and box

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Calculating Your Chip Cost

• Things to consider
• Mask cost we need 20 40 masks used to form
  different patterns used in different process
  steps a.k.a. Non-Recurring Engineering (NRE) cost
• Wafer cost
• Cost put in process steps
• Defect parts (we spend money producing defect
  parts!)
• Any other overhead including marketing
• Can we calculate cost of each chip now?
• What happens if we adopt a new technology that
  can build smaller transistors?

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(Simple) IC Process Overview

• Silicon ingot (silicon cylinder)
• (Blank) Wafers
• Various steps to build circuits on wafers
• Photomask process
• Chemical process
• Mechanical process
• Wafer test to sort out bad parts
• Tested die
• Packaging steps
• Wire bonding
• Material filling
• Marking
• Chip test to sort out bad parts
• Products

31
Testing Your Chip

• Function
• The chip is working correctly as intended
• Speed
• The chip is running at 4 GHz as intended
• Speed binning
• Power
• The chip consumes 50 Watt at 4 GHz as intended
• Reliability
• The chip will be operational for 10 years as
  written on manual and box

32
Calculating Your Chip Cost

• Things to consider
• Mask cost we need 20 40 masks used to form
  different patterns used in different process
  steps a.k.a. Non-Recurring Engineering (NRE) cost
• Wafer cost
• Cost put in process steps
• Defect parts (we spend money producing chips with
  defects!)
• Any other overhead including marketing
• Can we calculate cost of each chip now?
• What happens if we adopt a new technology that
  can build smaller transistors?

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Packaging
mounting
wire bonding
packaging material filling marking
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