An Era of Democracy, Reform and Imperialism

1
An Era of Democracy, Reform and Imperialism

• Pre-AP Unit 13 Chapters 26 27

2
Suffrage

• The right to vote Suffrage was a goal of the
  middle and lower-classes in Western Europe and
  the United States during the mid-19th century and
  became the key goal of the worldwide Womens
  Rights Movement of the late-19th and early 20th
  centuries.
• In 1800 women were mainly defined by their family
  and household roles. The vast majority of women
  throughout Europe and the United States had no
  legal identity apart from their husbands. Married
  women could not be a party in a lawsuit, could
  not sit on a jury, could not hold property in
  their own names, and could not write a will.
  Women in the early 19th century remained legally
  inferior and economically dependent on men. In
  the course of the 19th century and during the
  Second Industrial Revolution, women struggled to
  change their status. During much of the 19th
  century, working-class groups maintained the
  belief that women should remain at home to bear
  and nurture children and should not be allowed in
  the industrial workforce. The Second Industrial
  Revolution, however, opened the door to new jobs
  for women. There were not enough men to fill the
  relatively low-paid, white-collar jobs being
  created, so employers began to hire women. Both
  industrial plants and retail shops needed clerks,
  typists, secretaries, file clerks, and
  salesclerks. The expansion of government services
  created some job opportunities for women. They
  could be secretaries and telephone operators, and
  also took jobs in education, health, and social
  services. While some middle-class women held
  these jobs, they were mainly filled by the
  working class who aspired to a better quality of
  life.
• Many people in the 19th century believed that men
  were responsible to work outside the home while
  women should care for the family. During the
  1800s, marriage remained the only honorable and
  available career for most women. The number of
  children born to the average woman began to
  decline the most significant development in
  the modern family. This decline was tied to
  improved economic conditions, as well as to
  increased use of birth control. In 1882 Europes
  first birth control clinic opened in Amsterdam.

Closure Question 1 Explain why the birthrate
declined during the 1800s. (At least 1 sentence)
3
Womens Suffrage Movement
4
Chartist Movement

• A popular movement among workers and other groups
  who were not permitted to vote in Great Britain
  in the early 19th century. Leaders of the
  movement presented the demands to British
  Parliament first in 1838, though Parliament did
  not grant working-class urban men the right to
  vote until 1867. By the early 1900s most adult
  males in Britain had the right to vote.
• The Peoples Charter called for suffrage for all
  men and annual Parliamentary elections. It also
  proposed to reform Parliament in other ways. In
  Britain at the time, eligible men voted openly.
  Since their vote was not secret, they could feel
  pressure to vote in a certain way. Members of
  Parliament had to own land and received no
  salary, so they needed to be wealthy. The
  Chartists wanted to make Parliament responsive to
  the lower classes. To do this, they demanded a
  secret ballot, an end to property requirements
  for serving in Parliament, and pay for members of
  Parliament.
• Parliament rejected the Chartists demands.
  However, their protests convinced many people
  that the workers had valid complaints. Over the
  years, workers continued to press for political
  reform, and Parliament responded. It gave the
  vote to working-class men in 1867 and to male
  rural workers in 1884. After 1884, most males in
  Britain had the right to vote. By the early
  1900s, all the demands of the Chartists, except
  for annual elections, became law.

5
Queen Victoria

• Ruler of England from 1837 to 1901 Victorias
  sense of duty and moral respectability
  demonstrated the attitude of the British during
  her rule, which came to be known as the Victorian
  Age.
• The figure who presided over all this historic
  change was Queen Victoria. Victoria came to the
  throne in 1837 at the age of 18. She was queen
  for nearly 64 years. During the Victorian Age,
  the British Empire reached the height of its
  wealth and power. Victoria was popular with her
  subjects, and she performed her duties capably.
  However, she was forced to accept a less powerful
  role for the monarchy. The kings who preceded
  Victoria in the 1700s and 1800s had exercised
  great influence over Parliament. The spread of
  democracy in the 1800s shifted political power
  almost completely to Parliament, and especially
  to the elected House of Commons. Now the
  government was completely run by the prime
  minister and the cabinet.
• About two years after her coronation, Queen
  Victoria fell in love with her cousin Albert, a
  German prince. She proposed to him and they were
  married in 1840. Together they had nine children.
  Prince Albert established a tone of politeness
  and correct behavior at court, and the royal
  couple presented a picture of loving family life
  that became a British ideal. After Albert died in
  1861, the queen wore black silk for the rest of
  her life in mourning. She once said of Albert,
  Without him everything loses its interest.

6
Third Republic

• Government established by the French National
  Assembly in 1875. The Third Republic ruled France
  until World War II, but with a dozen political
  parties competing for power France remained
  divided.
• In 1890, several industrial countries had
  universal male suffrage (the right for all men to
  vote.) No country, however, allowed women to
  vote. As more men gained suffrage, more women
  demanded the same. During the 1800s, women in
  both Great Britain and the United States worked
  to gain the right to vote. British women
  organized reform societies and protested unfair
  laws and customs. AS women became more vocal,
  however, resistance to their demands grew. Many
  people, both men and women, thought that woman
  suffrage was too radical a break with tradition.
  Some claimed that women lacked the ability to
  take part in politics.
• After decades of peaceful efforts to win the
  right to vote, some women took more drastic
  steps. In Britain, Emmeline Pankhurst formed the
  Womens Social and Political Union (WSPU) in
  1903. The WSPU became the most militant
  organization for womens rights. Its goal was to
  draw attention to the cause of woman suffrage.
  Emmeline Pankhurst, her daughters, Christabel and
  Sylvia, and other WSPY members were arrested and
  imprisoned many times. When they were jailed, the
  Pankhursts led hunger strikes to keep their cause
  in the public eye. British officials force-fed
  Sylvia and other activists to keep them alive.
  Though the woman suffrage movement gained
  attention between 1880 and 1914, its successes
  were gradual. Women did not gain the right to
  vote in national elections in Great Britain and
  the United States until after World War I.

Closure Question 2 Why was the road to
democracy more difficult for France than for
England?
7
Dreyfus Affair / Anti-Semitism

• Anti-Semitism Prejudice against Jews
  Anti-Semitism has played a prominent role in
  European society since the fall of the Roman
  Empire, with many European nations preventing
  Jews from owning land or participating in
  European politics.
• Dreyfus Affair Controversy within France
  surrounding Captain Alfred Dreyfus, one of the
  few Jewish officers in the French army. In 1894,
  Dreyfus was accused of selling military secrets
  to Germany, found guilty and sentenced to life in
  prison on what was later found to be false
  evidence presented by other army officers. The
  Dreyfus Affair divided France, with many members
  of society arguing that Dreyfus case ought not
  to be reopened even when information proving that
  he had been framed was brought to light.
• Public opinion was sharply divided over the
  scandal. Many army leaders, nationalists, leaders
  in the clergy, and anti-Jewish groups refused to
  let the case be reopened. They feared sudden
  action would cast doubt on the honor of the army.
  Dreyfus defenders insisted that justice was more
  important. In 1898, the writer Emile Zola
  published an open letter titled Jaccuse! (I
  accuse!) in a popular French newspaper. In the
  letter, Zola denounced the army for covering up a
  scandal. Zola was sentenced to a year in prison
  for his views, but his letter gave strength to
  Dreyfus cause. Eventually, the French government
  declared his innocence.

Closure Question 3 What was the Dreyfus Affair?
Summarize the event in your own words.
8
Zionism

• Jewish national movement begun in the late 1800s
  Zionists immigrated to Jerusalem in Palestine in
  hopes of regaining control of the traditional
  Jewish homeland.
• Anti-Semitism, or hostility toward and
  discrimination against Jews, was not new to
  Europe. Since the Middle Ages, the Jews had been
  falsely portrayed by Christians as the murders of
  Jesus Christ and subjected to mob violence. Their
  rights had been restricted. They had been
  physically separated from Christians by being
  required to live in areas of cities known as
  ghettos. By the 1830s, the lives of many Jews had
  improved. They had legal equality in many
  European countries. They became bankers, lawyers,
  scientists, and scholars and were absorbed into
  the national culture. Old prejudices were still
  very much alive, though, and anti-Semitism grew
  stronger in the late 1800s. The intensity of
  anti-Semitism was evident from the Dreyfus affair
  in France. In 1894, a military court found
  Dreyfus, a captain in the French general staff,
  guilty of selling army secrets. During the trial,
  angry right-wing mobs yelled anti-Semitic sayings
  such as Death to the Jews. After the trial
  evidence emerged that proved Dreyfus innocent. A
  wave of public outcry finally forced the
  government to pardon Dreyfus in 1899.
• The Dreyfus case showed the strength of
  anti-Semitism in France and other parts of
  Western Europe. However, persecution of Jews was
  even more severe in Eastern Europe. Russian
  officials permitted pogroms, organized campaigns
  of violence against Jews. From the late 1880s on,
  thousands of Jews fled Eastern Europe. Many
  headed for the United States. For many Jews, the
  long history of exile and persecution convinced
  the to work for a homeland in Palestine. In the
  1890s, a movement known as Zionism developed to
  pursue this goal. Its leader was Theodor Herzl, a
  writer in Vienna. It took many years, however,
  before the state of Israel was established.

Closure Question 3 What was the connection
between anti-Semitism and Zionism?
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Closure Assignment 1

• Answer the following questions based on what you
  have learned from Chapter 26, Section 1
• Why was the road to democracy more difficult for
  France than for England?
• What was the Dreyfus Affair? Summarize the event
  in your own words.
• What was the connection between anti-Semitism and
  Zionism?

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Dominion

• A nation which is self-governing in domestic
  (local) affairs but remains part of a larger
  empire. During the mid-1800s Canada became a
  dominion, with its own national government though
  it continued to be a part of the British Empire.
• Canada was originally home to many Native
  American peoples. The first European country to
  colonize Canada was France. The earliest French
  colonists, in the 1600s and 1700s, had included
  many fur trappers and missionaries. They tended
  to live among the Native Americans. Some French
  intermarried with Native Americans. Great Britain
  took possession of the country in 1763 after it
  defeated France in the French and Indian War. The
  French who remained lived mostly in the lower St.
  Lawrence Valley. Many English-speaking colonists
  arrived in Canada after it came under British
  rule. Some came from Great Britain, and others
  were Americans who had stayed loyal to Britain
  after the American Revolution. They settled
  separately from the French along the Atlantic
  seaboard and the Great Lakes.
• Religious and cultural differences between the
  mostly Roman Catholic French and the mainly
  Protestant English-speaking colonists caused
  conflict in Canada. Both groups pressed Britain
  for a greater voice in governing their own
  affairs. In 1791 the British Parliament tried to
  resolve both issues by creating two new Canadian
  provinces. Upper Canada (now Ontario) had an
  English-speaking majority. Lower Canada (now
  Quebec) had a French-speaking majority. Each
  province had its own elected assembly.

Closure Question 1 Why did Britain create Upper
Canada and Lower Canada, and who lived in each
colony?
11
Maori / Aborigines

• Maori Polynesian people who settled in New
  Zealand around 800 A.D. and developed a culture
  based on farming, hunting, and fishing.
• Aborigines Native peoples of Australia.
  Aborigines are the longest ongoing culture in the
  world and live as nomads, fishing, hunting and
  gathering food.
• The British sea captain James Cook claimed New
  Zealand in 1769 and part of Australia in 1770 for
  Great Britain. Both lands were already inhabited
  however, when Cook reached Australia he
  considered it to be void of human life. Britain
  began colonizing Australia in 1788 with convicted
  criminals. The prisons in England were severely
  overcrowded. To solve this problem, the British
  government established a penal colony in
  Australia. A penal colony was a place where
  convicts were sent to serve their sentences. Many
  European nations used penal colonies as a way to
  prevent overcrowding of prisons. After their
  release, the newly freed prisoners could buy land
  and settle.

Closure Question 2 A) What was unusual about
the first European settlers in Australia? B) Why
do you think that Great Britain chose to send
these settlers to Australia?
12
Home Rule

• A goal of many Irish citizens to gain local
  control over internal matters while remaining a
  part of the British Empire. Great Britain,
  fearful that British Protestants living in
  Ireland might become targets of the Irish
  Catholic majority, refused to allow the
  establishment of a democratic self-government in
  Ireland prior to World War One.
• English expansion into Ireland had begun in the
  1100s, when the pope granted control of Ireland
  to the English king. English knights invaded
  Ireland, and many settled there to form a new
  aristocracy. The Irish, who had their own
  ancestry, culture, and language, bitterly
  resented the English presence. Laws imposed by
  the English in the 1500s and 1600s limited the
  rights of Catholics and favored the Protestant
  religion and the English language. Over the
  years, the British government was determined to
  maintain its control over Ireland. It formally
  joined Ireland to Britain in 1801. Though a
  setback for Irish nationalism, this move gave
  Ireland representation in the British Parliament.
  Irish leader Daniel OConnell persuaded
  Parliament to pass the Catholic Emancipation Act
  in 1829. This law restored many rights to
  Catholics.
• In the 1840s, Ireland experienced one of the
  worst famines of modern history. For many years,
  Irish peasants had depended on potatoes as
  virtually their sole source of food. From 1845 to
  1848, a plant fungus ruined nearly all of
  Irelands potato crop. Out of a population of 8
  million, about a million died from starvation and
  disease over the next few years. During the
  famine years, about a million and a half people
  fled from Ireland. Most went to the United
  States others went to Britain, Canada, and
  Australia. At home, in Ireland, the British
  government enforced the demands of the English
  landowners that the Irish peasants pay their
  rent. Many Irish lost their land and fell
  hopelessly in debt, while large landowners
  profited from higher food prices.

Closure Question 3 How was Britains policy
toward Canada in the 1700s similar to its policy
toward Ireland in the 1900s?
13
Irish Republican Army

• Unofficial military force seeking independence
  for Ireland. Beginning in the middle of World War
  I, the IRA staged a series of attacks against
  British officials in Ireland. The attacks sparked
  a war between the nationalists and the British
  government. This conflict influenced British
  Parliament to divide Ireland and grant home rule
  to Irish Catholic southern Ireland.
• One reason for Britains opposition to home rule
  was concern for Irelands Protestants. They
  feared being a minority in a country dominated by
  Catholics. Most Protestants lived in the northern
  part of Ireland, known as Ulster. Finally, in
  1914, Parliament enacted a home rule bill for
  southern Ireland. Just one month before the plan
  was to take effect, World War I broke out in
  Europe. Irish home rule was put on hold.
  Frustrated over the delay in gaining
  independence, a small group of Irish nationalists
  rebelled in Dublin during Easter week, 1916.
  British troops put down the Easter Rising and
  executed its leaders. Their fate, however,
  aroused wider popular support for the nationalist
  movement.
• After World War I, the Irish nationalists won a
  victory in the elections for the British
  Parliament. To protest delays in home rule, the
  nationalist members decided not to attend
  Parliament. Instead, they formed an underground
  Irish government and declared themselves
  independent. In 1921, Britain divided Ireland
  and granted home rule to southern Ireland.
  Ulster, or Northern Ireland, remained a part of
  Great Britain. The south became a dominion called
  the Irish Free State. However, many Irish
  nationalists, led by Eamon De Valera, continued
  to seek total independence from Britain. In 1949,
  the Irish Free State declared itself the
  independent Republic of Ireland.

Closure Question 3 How was Britains policy
toward Canada in the 1700s similar to its policy
toward Ireland in the 1900s?
14
Closure Assignment 2

• Answer the following questions based on what you
  have learned from Chapter 26, Section 2
• Why did Britain create Upper Canada and Lower
  Canada, and who lived in each colony?
• A) What was unusual about the first European
  settlers in Australia? B) Why do you think that
  Great Britain chose to send these settlers to
  Australia?
• How was Britains policy toward Canada in the
  1700s similar to its policy toward Ireland in the
  1900s?

15
Manifest Destiny

• Term used to describe the belief that God wanted
  the United States to own all of North America.
• Expansionists strongly supported the idea of
  Manifest Destiny, envisioning the expansion of
  liberty for white Americans. This expansion would
  come at the expense of Indians and Mexicans.
• Expansionists argued that God had created Native
  Americans and Mexicans as inferiors to White
  Americans, and that they did not deserve to keep
  lands that were badly needed for American
  settlement.
• In addition, many Southerners hoped to add more
  slaves states in the west to strengthen their
  political position in Congress.
• The American claim is by the right of our
  manifest destiny to overspread and possess the
  whole of the continent which Providence has given
  us for the development of the great experiment of
  liberty and self-government entrusted to us.
  John L. Sullivan, New York Morning News,
  December 27, 1845

Closure Question 1 Who might have agreed with
the idea of Manifest Destiny? Who might have
disagreed? Explain your answers.
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Abraham Lincoln1811-1865

• Illinois Republican (Political party established
  to end slavery) and President from 1861 to 1865.
  The election of Lincoln directly led the
  slave-owning southern states to choose to secede,
  leading to the American Civil War.
• Raised in rural poverty and largely self-taught,
  Lincoln began his political career at age 25,
  when he was elected to the Illinois State
  Legislature as a Whig.
• By 1836, Lincoln was admitted to the Illinois bar
  as an attorney and practiced law in Springfield.
  There he gained a reputation for integrity and
  directness and was given the title Honest Abe.
• Lincoln seemed to be opposed to slavery, but his
  political life was marked by a desire to steer a
  middle course. Lincoln served one term in the
  House of Representatives in the 1840s but gained
  national fame for his opposition to the
  Kansas-Nebraska Act which was promoted by his
  rival politician, Stephen Douglas.

Closure Question 2 How did Abraham Lincolns
life reflect the basis of American democracy?
17
Secede / U.S. Civil War

• Secede To withdraw, in 1861 several southern
  states in the U.S.A. seceded from the union
  following the election of Abraham Lincoln, a
  Republican president who opposed slavery.
• U.S. Civil War (1861-1865) Following southern
  secession, Lincoln ordered the army of the United
  States to bring the rebel states back into the
  Union. More than 600,000 American men lost their
  lives in the conflict. Though the South had
  superior military leadership, the North had a
  larger population, better transportation, greater
  resources, and more factories. As a result, the
  North emerged victorious and the Union was
  restored.
• By the mid-19th century, slavery had become a
  threat to American unity. Four million enslaved
  African Americans were in the South by 1860,
  compared with one million in 1800. The Souths
  economy was based on growing cotton on
  plantations, chiefly by slave labor. The cotton
  economy and plantation-based slavery were closely
  related. The disagreement over slavery fueled a
  debate about the rights of the individual states
  against those of the federal government. Southern
  politicians argued that the states had freely
  joined the Union, and so they could freely leave.
  Most Northerners felt that the Constitution had
  established the Union once and for all.

Closure Question 2 What were the relative
resources of the North and South in the U.S.
Civil War?
18
Emancipation Proclamation

• Formally announced on 9/22/1862, President
  Abraham Lincoln issued the military order
  proclaiming that all enslaves people in the
  Confederate states would be considered free by
  the United States on 1/1/1863.
• The Proclamation did not apply to slaves in the
  loyal border states, nor did it truly give
  freedom to any slave in the Confederacy. It did
  give the Union army the authority to free any
  slave it came in contact with, but the slaves
  themselves had to escape from their masters to
  reach the army. Lincoln hoped that the order
  might convince some southern states to surrender
  before the January 1st deadline. The 54th
  Massachusetts Regiment was the first all African
  American unit in United States military history
  by the wars end more than 180,000 African
  American volunteers had served in the Union
  military. The Confederacy considered drafting
  slaves and free blacks in 1863 and 1864, but most
  southerners opposed the enlistment of African
  Americans.
• In the aftermath of the war, the U.S. Congress
  passed the Thirteenth Amendment to the
  Constitution, which abolished slavery in the
  United States. The Fourteenth and Fifteenth
  Amendments extended the rights of citizenship to
  all Americans and guaranteed former slaves the
  right to vote. The need for mass production and
  distribution of goods during the Civil War
  speeded industrialization. After the war, the
  United States experienced industrial expansion
  unmatched in history. By 1914, it was a leading
  industrial power.

19
Segregation

• Forced separation of individuals according to
  their race. In the aftermath of the Civil War all
  of the states which had seceded, and many states
  which had not, passed laws mandating that African
  Americans use separate public facilities than
  other citizens.
• Mandated by Reconstruction state constitutions,
  public schools grew slowly, drawing in only about
  half of southern children by the end of the
  1870s. Establishing a new school was expensive,
  especially since southerners chose to establish
  segregated schools. Still, the establishment of a
  public school system in the south was a major
  achievement of the Reconstruction Era. From 1865
  to 1877, Union troops occupied the South and
  enforced the constitutional protections. This
  period is called Reconstruction. After federal
  troops left the South, white Southerners passed
  laws that limited African Americans rights and
  made it difficult for them to vote. Such laws
  also encouraged segregation, or separation, of
  blacks and whites in the South. African Americans
  continued to face discrimination in the North as
  well.

20
Closure Assignment 3

• Answer the following questions based on what you
  have learned from Chapter 26, Section 3
• Who might have agreed with the idea of Manifest
  Destiny? Who might have disagreed? Explain your
  answers.
• How did Abraham Lincolns life reflect the basis
  of American democracy?
• What were the relative resources of the North and
  South in the U.S. Civil War?

21
Assembly Line

• Assembly Line An efficient manufacturing method
  pioneered by American Henry Ford in 1913
  Assembly Line production places a product on a
  conveyor belt and has individuals at various
  stations along the belt responsible to attach one
  specific part.
• Mass Production is the business practice of
  producing large quantities of identical products
  which can be made quickly and cheaply. By the
  1880s, streetcars and subways powered by
  electricity had appeared in major European
  cities. Electricity transformed the factory as
  well. Conveyor belts, cranes, and machines could
  all be powered by electricity. With electric
  lights, factories could remain open 24 hours a
  day. The development of the internal-combustion
  engine, fired by oil and gasoline, provided a new
  source of power in transportation. This engine
  gave rise to ocean liners with oil-fired engines,
  as well as to the airplane and the automobile. In
  1903 Orville and Wilbur Wright made the first
  flight in a fixed-wing plane at Kitty Hawk, North
  Carolina. In 1919 the first regular passenger air
  service was established.
• Industrial production grew at a rapid pace
  because of greatly increased sales of
  manufactured goods. Europeans could afford to buy
  more consumer products for several reasons. Wages
  for workers increased after 1870. In addition,
  prices for manufactured goods were lower because
  of reduced transportation costs. One of the
  biggest reasons for more efficient production was
  the assembly line. In the cities, the first
  department stores began to sell a new range of
  consumer goods. These goods clocks, bicycles,
  electric lights, and typewriters, for example
  were made possible by the steel and electrical
  industries.

Closure Question 1 What effects did the
assembly line have on production costs?
22
Assembly Line
23
Charles Darwin / Theory of Evolution

• Charles Darwin British biologist who, in 1859,
  published On the Origin of Species, teaching his
  Theory of Evolution, i.e. that each species, or
  kind, of plant and animal had evolved over a long
  period of time from earlier, simpler forms of
  life.
• Natural Selection Part of Darwins Theory of
  Evolution Darwin believed that all organisms
  struggle for existence and that, in order to
  survive, they change to adapt to their
  environment. Those that dont adapt become
  extinct. According to Darwin, those organisms
  that are naturally selected for survival
  (survival of the fittest) reproduce and thrive.
  The unfit do not survive. The fit that survive
  pass on the variations that enabled them to
  survive until, according to Darwin, a new
  separate species emerges. In The Descent of Man,
  published in 1871, Darwin argued that human
  beings had animal origins and were not an
  exception to the rule governing other species.
• Darwins ideas raised a storm of controversy.
  Some people did not take his ideas seriously.
  Other people objected that Darwins theory made
  human beings ordinary products of nature rather
  than unique creations of God. Others were
  bothered by his idea of life as a mere struggle
  for survival. Is there a place in Darwinism for
  moral values? they asked. Some believers felt
  Darwin had not acknowledged Gods role in
  creation. Some detractors scorned Darwin and
  depicted him unfavorably in cartoons. Gradually,
  however, many scientists and other intellectuals
  came to accept Darwins theory. His theory
  changed thinking in countless fields from biology
  to anthropology.

Closure Question 2 Besides competing for food,
what are some of the other conditions to which
species must adapt? Provide at least 3.
24
Radioactivity

• Energy released by the elements radium and
  polonium. Marie and Pierre Curie, a French
  husband and wife team, discovered the two
  elements, earning the Nobel Prize for physics in
  1903.
• Throughout much of the 1800s, Westerners believed
  in a mechanical conception of the universe that
  was based on the ideas of Isaac Newton. In this
  perspective, the universe was viewed as a giant
  machine. Time, space, and matter were objective
  realities existing independently of those
  observing them. Matter was thought to be made of
  solid material bodies called atoms. These views
  were seriously questioned at the end of the 19th
  century. The French scientist Marie Curie
  discovered that an element called radium gave off
  energy, or radiation, that apparently came from
  within the atom itself. Atoms were not simply
  hard material bodies but small, active worlds.
• In 1803, the British chemist John Dalton
  theorized that all matter is made of tiny
  particles called atoms. Dalton showed that
  elements contain only one kind of atom, which as
  a specific weight. Compounds, on the other hand,
  contain more than one kind of atom. In 1869,
  Dmitri Mendeleev, a Russian chemist, organized a
  chart on which all the known elements were
  arranged in order of weight, from lightest to
  heaviest. He left gaps where he predicted that
  new elements would be discovered. Later, his
  predictions proved correct. Mendeleevs chart,
  the Periodic Table, is still used today.
  Physicists around 1900 continued to unravel the
  secrets of the atom. Earlier scientists believed
  that he atom was the smallest particle that
  existed. A British physicist named Ernest
  Rutherford suggested that atoms were made up of
  yet smaller particles. Each atom, he said, had a
  nucleus surrounded by one or more particles
  called electrons. Soon other physicists such as
  Max Planck, Neils Bohr, and Albert Einstein were
  studying the structure and energy of atoms.

25
Psychology

• The study of the human mind and behavior.
  Psychology developed as a unique social science
  in the late 19th century thanks to the work of
  Russian physiologist Ivan Pavlov, who theorized
  that human actions were often unconscious
  reactions to experiences and could be changed by
  training, and Austrian doctor Sigmund Freud, who
  believed that unconscious forces, such as
  suppressed memories, desires, and impulses shape
  human behavior. Freud founded psychoanalysis as a
  therapy to deal with psychological conflicts.
• Sigmund Freud, a doctor from Vienna, proposed
  theories regarding the nature of the human mind.
  Freuds ideas, like the new physics, added to the
  uncertainties of the age. His major theories were
  published in 1900 in The Interpretation of
  Dreams. According to Freud, human behavior was
  strongly determined by past experiences and
  internal forces of which people were largely
  unaware. Repression of such experiences began in
  childhood, so he devised a method known as
  psychoanalysis by which a therapist and patient
  could probe deeply into the patients memory. In
  this way, they could retrace the chain of
  repressed thoughts all the way back to their
  childhood origins. If the patients conscious
  mind could be made aware of the unconscious and
  its repressed contents, the patient could be
  healed.
• Rapid advances in science, psychology, and the
  arts caused people to question previous knowledge
  and created a culture of modernity. While
  scientists such as Marie Curie and Albert
  Einstein were reshaping peoples understanding of
  the external world, Sigmund Freud was shaping
  their perceptions of the internal world the
  inner workings of the mind. Freud believed that
  the mind had both conscious and unconscious
  parts, and that the unconscious controls many
  human behaviors. Painful memories from childhood
  became rooted, or repressed, in the unconscious,
  leading to mental illness. To help the person
  heal, these memories must be brought to conscious
  awareness. Freud believed that memories buried in
  the unconscious emerge in disguised form in
  dreams. One way to gain access to repressed
  memories, then, is to interpret dreams.

26
Psychoanalysis
27
Mass Culture

• The appeal of art, writing, music, and other
  forms of entertainment to a larger audience. The
  rise of the middle-class which was sparked by the
  Industrial Revolution led to an increase in the
  amount of leisure time available to citizens
  worldwide. In the late 19th century this leisure
  time was spent in music halls, at vaudeville
  performances, in movie theaters, and at sporting
  events.
• There were several causes for the rise of mass
  culture. Their effects changed life in Europe and
  North America. The demand for leisure activities
  resulted in a variety of new pursuits for people
  to enjoy. A popular leisure activity was a trip
  to the local music hall. On a typical evening, a
  music hall might offer a dozen or more different
  acts. It might feature singers, dancers,
  comedians, jugglers, magicians, and acrobats. In
  the United States, musical variety shows were
  called vaudeville. Vaudeville acts traveled from
  town to town, appearing at theaters.
• During the 1880s, several inventors worked at
  trying to project moving images. One successful
  design came from France. Another came from Thomas
  Edisons laboratory. The earliest motion pictures
  were black and white and lasted less than a
  minute. By the early 1900s, filmmakers were
  producing the first feature films. Movies quickly
  became big business. By 1910, five million
  Americans attended some 10,000 theaters each day.
  The European movie industry experienced similar
  growth. With time at their disposal, more people
  began to enjoy sports and outdoor activities.
  Spectator sports now became entertainment. In the
  United States, football and baseball soared in
  popularity. In Europe, the first professional
  soccer clubs formed and drew big crowds. Favorite
  English sports such as cricket spread to the
  British colonies in Australia, India, and South
  Africa.

Closure Question 3 How is the mass culture that
rose at the end of the 19th century similar to
mass culture today? How is it different? Explain
your response.
28
Closure Assignment 4

• Answer the following questions based on what you
  have learned from Chapter 26, Section 4
• What effects did the assembly line have on
  production costs?
• Besides competing for food, what are some of the
  other conditions to which species must adapt?
  Provide at least 3.
• How is the mass culture that rose at the end of
  the 19th century similar to mass culture today?
  How is it different? Explain your response.

29
Imperialism

• The extension of a nations power over other
  lands.
• In the 19th century , a new phase of Western
  expansion began. European nations began to view
  Asian and African societies as a source of
  industrial raw materials and a market for Western
  manufactured goods. In the 1880s, European states
  began an intense scramble for overseas territory.
  Europeans had set up colonies and trading posts
  in North America, South America, and Africa by
  the 16th century. However, the imperialism of the
  19th century, called the new imperialism by
  some, was different. Earlier, European states had
  been content, especially in Africa and Asia, to
  set up a few trading posts where they could carry
  on trade and perhaps some missionary activity.
  Now they sought nothing less than direct control
  over vast territories.
• Why did Westerners begin to increase their search
  for colonies after 1880? There was a strong
  economic motive. Capitalist states in the West
  were looking for both markets and raw materials
  such as rubber, oil, and tin for their
  industries. The issue was not simply an economic
  one, however. European nation-states were
  involved in heated rivalries. They acquired
  colonies abroad in order to gain an advantage
  over their rivals. Colonies were also a source of
  national prestige. To some people, in fact, a
  nation could not be great without colonies. In
  addition, imperialism was tied to Social
  Darwinism and racism. Social Darwinists believed
  that in the struggle between nations, the fit are
  victorious. Racism is the belief that race
  determines traits and capabilities. Racists
  erroneously believe that particular races are
  superior or inferior. Some Europeans took a more
  religious and humanitarian approach to
  imperialism. They believed Europeans had a moral
  responsibility to civilize primitive people. They
  called this responsibility the white mans
  burden. To some, this meant bringing the
  Christian message to the heathen masses. To
  others, it meant bringing the benefits of Western
  democracy and capitalism to these societies.

30
David Livingstone / Henry Stanley

• David Livingstone British doctor, Christian
  missionary, and explorer who trekked through
  uncharted regions of the interior of Africa.
• Henry Stanley American journalist who traveled
  to Africa to find Livingstone and, following
  Livingstones death in 1873, continued
  exploration and encouraged European settlement of
  Central Africa.
• Central African territories were soon added to
  the list of European colonies. Explorers aroused
  popular interest in the dense tropical jungles of
  Central Africa. Livingstone was one such
  explorer. He arrived in Africa in 1841 as a
  27-year-old medical missionary. During the 30
  years he spent in Africa, Livingstone trekked
  through uncharted regions. He sometimes traveled
  by canoe, but mostly Livingstone walked and spent
  much of his time exploring the interior of the
  continent. During his travels through Africa,
  Livingstone made detailed notes of his
  discoveries. He sent this information back to
  London whenever he could. The maps of Africa were
  often redrawn based on Livingstones reports. A
  major goal of Livingstones explorations was to
  find a navigable river that would open Central
  Africa to European commerce and Christianity.
• When Livingstone disappeared for awhile, an
  American newspaper, the New York Herald, hired a
  young journalist, Henry Stanley, to find the
  explorer. Stanley did find him on the eastern
  shore of Lake Tanganyika. Overwhelmed by finding
  Livingstone alive if not well, Stanley greeted
  the explorer with these now famous words, Dr.
  Livingstone, I presume? After Livingstones
  death in 1873, Stanley remained in Africa to
  carry on the great explorers work. Unlike
  Livingstone, however, Henry Stanley had a strong
  dislike of Africa. He once said, I detest the
  land most heartily. In the 1870s, Stanley
  explored the Congo River in Central Africa and
  sailed down it to the Atlantic Ocean. Soon, he
  was encouraging the British to send settlers to
  the Congo River basin. When Britain refused,
  Stanley turned to King Leopold II of Belgium.
• Leopold was the real driving force behind
  colonization of Central Africa. He rushed
  enthusiastically into the pursuit of an empire in
  Africa. To open to civilization, he said, the
  only part of our globe where it has not yet
  penetrated, to pierce the darkness which
  envelopes whole populations is a crusade, if I
  may say so, a crusade worthy of this century of
  progress. Profit, however, was equally important
  to Leopold. In 1876 he hired Henry Stanley to set
  up Belgian settlements in the Congo. Leopolds
  claim to the vast territories of the Congo
  aroused widespread concern among other European
  states. France, in particular, rushed to plant
  its flag in the hear of Africa. Leopold ended up
  with the territories around the Congo River.
  France occupied the areas farther north.

31
Racism / Social Darwinism

• Racism The belief that race determines traits
  and capabilities and that particular races are
  superior or inferior.
• Social Darwinism Theory that Darwins theory of
  natural selection can be applied to the
  interaction of individuals and nations. The
  strong people and nations were meant to rule the
  world, while the weak were meant to be dominated
  or become extinct.
• Several factors contributed to the Europeans
  conquest of Africa. One overwhelming advantage
  was the Europeans technological superiority. The
  Maxim gun, invented in 1884, was the worlds
  first automatic machine gun. European countries
  quickly acquired the Maxim, while the resisting
  Africans were forced to rely on outdated weapons.
  European countries also had the means to control
  their empire. The invention of the steam engine
  allowed Europeans to easily travel on rivers to
  establish bases of control deep in the African
  continent. Railroads, cables, and steamships
  allowed close communications within a colony and
  between the colony and its controlling nation.
• Even with superior arms and steam engines to
  transport them, another factor might have kept
  Europeans confined to the coast. They were highly
  susceptible to malaria, a disease carried by the
  dense swarms of mosquitoes in Africas interior.
  The perfection of the drug quinine in 1829
  eventually protected Europeans from becoming
  infected with the disease. Factors within Africa
  also made the continent easier for Europeans to
  colonize. Africans huge variety of languages and
  cultures discouraged unity among them. Wars
  fought between ethnic groups over land, water,
  and trade rights also prevented a unified stand.
  Europeans soon learned to play rival groups
  against each other.

32
Closure Question 1List the ways in which the
French system of direct rule included Africans.
(At least 2 answers)

• The French had colonies in North Africa. In 1870,
  after about 150,000 French people had settled in
  the region of Algeria, the French government
  established control there. Two years later,
  France imposed a protectorate on neighboring
  Tunisia. In 1912 France established a
  protectorate over much of Morocco.
• Most European nations governed their African
  possessions through a form of direct rule. This
  was true in the French colonies. At the top was a
  French official, usually known as a
  governor-general. He was appointed from Paris and
  governed with the aid of bureaucracy in the
  capital city of the colony.
• The French ideal was to assimilate African
  subjects into French culture rather than preserve
  native traditions. Africans were eligible to run
  for office and even serve in the French National
  Assembly in Paris. A few were also appointed to
  high-powered positions in the colonial
  administration.

33
Berlin Conference

• Meeting of 14 European nations in 1884 and 1885
  to lay down the rules for the division of Africa.
  The nations agreed that any European country
  could claim land in Africa by notifying other
  nations of its claims and showing it could
  control the area. The conference that European
  nations would not go to war with each other over
  African territory. By 1914, only Liberia and
  Ethiopia remained free from European control.
• When European countries began colonizing, many
  believed that Africans would soon be buying
  European goods in great quantities. They were
  wrong few Africans bought European goods.
  However, European businesses still needed raw
  materials from Africa. The major source of great
  wealth in African proved to be the continents
  rich mineral resources. The Belgian Congo
  contained untold wealth in copper and tin. Even
  these riches seemed small compared with the gold
  and diamonds in South Africa. Businesses
  eventually developed cash-crop plantations to
  grow peanuts, palm oil, cocoa, and rubber. These
  products displaced the food crops grown by
  farmers to feed their families.
• The motives that drove colonization in Africa
  were also at work in other lands. Similar
  economic, political, and social forces
  accelerated the drive to take over land in all
  parts of the globe. The Industrial Revolution in
  particular provided European countries with a
  reason to add lands to their control. As European
  nations industrialized, they searched for new
  markets and raw materials to improve their
  economies.

34
Closure Question 2 What can you conclude from
the fact that African delegates were not included
in the Berlin Conference of 1884? (At least 1
sentence)

• By 1885, Britain and Germany had become the chief
  rivals in East Africa. Germany came late to the
  ranks of the imperialist powers. At first, the
  German chancellor Otto von Bismarck had
  downplayed the importance of colonies. As more
  and more Germans called for a German empire,
  however, Bismarck became a convert to
  colonialism. As he expressed it, All this
  colonial business is a sham, but we need it for
  the elections.
• In addition to its West African holdings, Germany
  tried to develop colonies in East Africa. Most of
  East Africa had not yet been claimed by any other
  power. However, the British were also interested
  in the area because control of East Africa would
  connect the British Empire in Africa from South
  Africa to Egypt. Portugal and Belgium also
  claimed parts of East Africa.
• To settle conflict claims, the Berlin Conference
  met in 1884 and 1885. The conference officially
  recognized both British and German claims for
  territory in East Africa. Portugal received a
  clear claim on Mozambique. No African delegates,
  however, were present at this conference.

35
Shaka Zulu

• Chief of the Zulu tribe in southern Africa during
  the early 19th century. Shaka used highly
  disciplined warriors and good military
  organization to create a large centralized state
  by 1816 which withstood attempts by the British
  to colonize their homeland. However, Shakas
  successors were unable to keep the kingdom
  together and, facing superior weaponry such as
  the Maxim Gun (the first automatic machine gun),
  the Zulus fell under British control by 1887.
• Nowhere in Africa did the European did the
  European presence grow more rapidly than in the
  south. By 1865, the total white population of
  South Africa had risen to nearly 200,000 people.
  The Boers, or Afrikaners as the descendants of
  the original Dutch settlers were called had
  occupied Cape Town and surrounding areas in South
  Africa since the 17th century. During the
  Napoleonic Wars, however, the British seized
  these lands from the Dutch. Afterward, the
  British encouraged settlers to come to what they
  called Cape Colony.
• In the 1830s, disgusted with British rule, the
  Boers moved from the coastal lands and headed
  northward on the Great Trek. Altogether one out
  of every five Dutch speaking South Africans
  joined the trek. Their parties eventually settled
  in the region between the Orange and Vaal Rivers
  and in the region north of the Vaal River. In
  these areas, the Boers formed two independent
  republics the Orange Free State and the
  Transvaal (later called the South African
  Republic).

36
European Colonization in Africa
37
Boers / Boer War

• Boers Farmers Dutch settlers who gradually
  took Africans lands in South Africa during the
  17th and 18th centuries. The Boers clashed with
  the British regarding land and the practice of
  slavery, a practice which the Boers supported.
• Boer War (1899-1910) Conflict between the Boers
  and the British following the discovery of gold
  and diamonds in South Africa. The Boers launched
  commando raids and used guerrilla tactics against
  the British. The British countered by burning
  Boer farms and imprisoning women and children in
  disease-ridden concentration camps. Britain
  finally won the war and formed the Union of South
  Africa.
• The Boers believed that white superiority was
  ordained by God. They denied non-Europeans any
  place in their society other than as laborers or
  servants. As they settled the lands, the Boers
  put many of the indigenous peoples in these areas
  on reservations. The Boers had frequently battled
  the Zulu people. In the early 19th century, the
  Zulu, under a talented ruler named Shaka, had
  carved out their own empire. Even after Shakas
  death, the Zulu remained powerful. Finally, in
  the late 1800s, the British military became
  involved in conflicts with the Zulu defeated
  them.
• In the 1880s, British policy in South Africa was
  influenced by Cecil Rhodes. Rhodes had founded
  diamond and gold companies that had made him a
  fortune. He gained control of a territory north
  of the Transvaal, which he named Rhodesia after
  himself. Rhodes was a great champion of British
  expansion. He said once, I think what God would
  like me to do is to paint as much of Africa
  British red as possible. One of Rhodes goals
  was to create a series of British colonies from
  Cape to Cairo all linked by a railroad.

38
Closure Question 3 Why do you think the Boers
resisted British rule? (At least 1 sentence)

• Cecil Rhodes ambitions eventually led to his
  downfall in 1896. The British government forced
  him to resign as prime minister of Cape Colony
  after discovering that he planned to overthrow
  the Boer government of the South African Republic
  without his governments approval. The British
  action was too late to avoid a war between the
  British and the Boers however.
• This war, called the Boer War, dragged on from
  1899 to 1902. Fierce guerrilla resistance by the
  Boers angered the British. They responded by
  burning crops and herding about 120,000 Boer
  women and children into detention camps, where
  lack of food caused some 20,000 deaths.
  Eventually, the vastly larger British army won. A
  peace treaty was signed in 1902.
• In 1910 the British created an independent Union
  of South Africa, which combined the old Cape
  Colony and the Boer republics. The new state
  would be a self-governing nation within the
  British Empire. To appease the Boers, the British
  agreed that only whites, with a few propertied
  Africans, would vote.

39
Closure Assignment 5

• Answer the following questions based on the
  information covered in Chapter 21, Section 2
• List the ways in which the French system of
  direct rule included Africans. (At least 2
  answers)
• What can you conclude from the fact that African
  delegates were not included in the Berlin
  Conference of 1884? (At least 1 sentence)
• Why do you think the Boers resisted British rule?
  (At least 1 sentence)

40
Paternalism

• European policy towards African colonies which
  was based on the view that Africans were unable
  to handle the complex business of running a
  country. Europeans governed people in a parental
  way by providing for their needs but not giving
  them rights. To accomplish this, Europeans
  brought in their own bureaucrats and did not
  train local people in European methods of
  governing.
• The Imperialism of the 18th and 19th centuries
  was conducted differently from the explorations
  of the 15th and 16th centuries. In the earlier
  periods, imperial powers often did not penetrate
  far into the conquered areas in Asia and Africa.
  Nor did they always have a substantial influence
  on the lives of the people. During this new
  period of imperialism, the Europeans demanded
  more influence over the economic, political, and
  social lives of the people. They were determined
  to shape the economies of the lands to benefit
  European economies. They also wanted the people
  to adopt European customs.
• Each European nation had certain policies and
  goals for establishing colonies. To establish
  control of an area, Europeans used different
  techniques. Over time, four forms of colonial
  control emerged colony, protectorate, sphere of
  influence, and economic imperialism. In practice,
  gaining control of an area might involve the use
  of several of these forms.

Closure Question 1 How was the policy of
paternalism like Social Darwinism?
41
Assimilation

• European imperial policy based on the idea that
  in time, the local populations in Africa would
  adopt the culture of their European or American
  rulers and become like them. To aid in this
  transition, all local schools, courts, and
  businesses were patterned after those of the
  ruling nation. In many cases, native Africans
  were obligated to abandon their native cultural
  practices and languages in order to gain greater
  acceptance and rights from their imperial rulers.
  
• Western powers governed their new colonial
  empires by either indirect or direct rule. Their
  chief goals were to exploit the natural resources
  of the lands and to open up markets for their own
  manufactured goods. Sometimes a colonial power
  could realize its goals by cooperating with local
  political elites. For example, the Dutch East
  India Company used indirect rule in the Dutch
  East Indies. This made access to the regions
  natural resources easier. Indirect rule was
  cheaper because fewer officials had to be trained
  and it affected local culture less.
• However, indirect rule was not always possible.
  Some local elites resisted the foreign conquest.
  In these cases, the local elites were replaced
  with Western officials. Great Britain
  administered Burma directly through its colonial
  government in India. In Indochina, France used
  both systems. It imposed direct rule in southern
  Vietnam, but ruled indirectly through the emperor
  in northern Vietnam. To justify their conquests,
  Western powers spoke of bringing the blessings of
  Western civilization of their colonial subjects,
  including representative government. However,
  many Westerners came to fear the idea of native
  peoples (especially educated ones) being allowed
  political rights.

Closure Question 2 Do you think Europeans could
have conquered Africa if the Industrial
Revolution had never occurred? Explain your
answer.
42
Menelik II

• Emperor of Ethiopia in the late 19th century
  Under Meneliks leadership Ethiopia became the
  only African nation that successfully resisted
  the Europeans. He successfully played Italians,
  French, and British against each other, all of
  whom were striving to bring Ethiopia into their
  spheres of influence. He built up a large arsenal
  of modern weapons purchased from France and
  Russia. In 1896, at the Battle of Adowa,
  Ethiopian forces successfully defeated the
  Italians and kept their nation independent.
• The unsuccessful resistance attempts included
  active military resistance and resistance through
  religious movements. Algerias almost 50-year
  resistance to French rule was one outstanding
  example of active resistance. The resistance
  movement led by Samori Toure in West Africa
  against the French is another example. After
  modernizing his army, Toure fought the French for
  16 years. Africans in German East Africa put
  their faith in spiritual defense. African
  villages resisted Germans insistence that they
  plant cotton, a cash crop for export, rather than
  attend to their own food crops. In 1905, the
  belief suddenly arose that a magic water
  sprinkled on their bodies would turn the Germans
  bullets into water. The uprising became known as
  the Maji Maji rebellion. Over 20 different ethnic
  groups united to fight for their freedom. The
  fighters believed that their war had been
  ordained by God and that their ancestors would
  return to life and assist their struggle.

Closure Question 3 Why would the French and
Russians sell arms to Ethiopia?
43
Closure Assignment 6

• Answer the following questions based on what you
  have learned from Chapter 27, Section 2
• How was the policy of paternalism like Social
  Darwinism?
• Do you think Europeans could have conquered
  Africa if the Industrial Revolution had never
  occurred? Explain your answer.
• Why would the French and Russians sell arms to
  Ethiopia?

44
Geopolitics

• An interest in or taking of land for its
  strategic location or products. Geopolitics
  played an important role in the fate of the
  Ottoman Empire. The Ottomans controlled access to
  the Mediterranean and the Atlantic sea trade.
  Discovery of oil in Persia around 1900 and in the
  Arabian Peninsula after World War I focused even
  more attention on the area.
• The declining Ottoman Empire had difficulties
  trying to fit into the modern world. However, the
  Ottomans made attempts to change before they
  finally were unable to hold back the European
  imperialist powers. When Suleyman I, the last
  great Ottoman sultan, died in 1566, he was
  followed by a succession of weak sultans. The
  palace government broke up into a number of
  quarreling, often corrupt factions. Weakening
  power brought other problems. Corruption and
  theft had caused financial losses. Coinage was
  devalued, causing inflation. Once the Ottoman
  Empire had embraced modern technologies, but now
  it fell further and further behind Europe.
• When Selim III came into power in 1789, he
  attempted to modernize the army. However, the old
  janissary corps resisted his efforts. Selim III
  was overthrown, and reform movements were
  temporarily abandoned. Meanwhile, nationalist
  feelings began to stir among the Ottomans
  subject peoples. IN 1830, Greece gained its
  independence, and Serbia gained self-rule. The
  Ottomans weakness was becoming apparent to
  European powers, who were expanding their
  territories. They began to look for ways to take
  the lands away from the Ottomans.

45
Crimean War

• Conflict between Russia and the Ottoman Empire
  during the mid-19th century. Russias motivation
  to begin the war was to gain access to a
  warm-weather port on the Black Sea. Britain and
  France wanted to prevent the Russians from
  gaining control of Ottoman lands, so they entered
  the war on the side of the Ottoman Empire. The
  combined forces of the Ottoman Empire, Britain,
  and France defeated Russia. Though victorious,
  the war revealed the Ottomans military weakness,
  and the Ottomans continued to lose territory
  until their government was ended following World
  War I.
• The Crimean War was the first war in which women,
  led by Florence Nightingale, established their
  position as army nurses. It was also the first
  war to be covered by newspaper correspondents.
  Despite the help of Britain and France, the
  Ottoman Empire continued to lose lands. The
  Russians came to the aid of Slavic people in the
  Balkans who rebelled against the Ottomans. The
  Ottomans lost control of Romania, Montenegro,
  Cyprus, Bosnia, Herzegovina, and an area that
  became Bulgaria. The Ottomans lost land in Africa
  too. By the beginning of World War I, the Ottoman
  Empire was reduced in size and in deep decline.

46
Suez Canal

• A human-made waterway that cut through the
  Isthmus of Suez, connecting the Red Sea to the
  Mediterranean. It was built mainly with French
  money from private interest groups, using
  Egyptian