Successes and Failures in Language Planning for European Languages in Asian Nations

1
Successes and Failures in Language Planning for
European Languages in Asian Nations

• Richard B. Baldauf Jr.
• Presenter
• 4th Nitobe Symposium, Sophia University, Tokyo 2
  August 2007

2
Authors

• Richard B. Baldauf Jr., School of Education,
  University of Queensland
• Yeo-Chua Siew Kheng Catherine, Policy and
  Leadership Studies, National Institute of
  Education/Nanyang Technological University
  Singapore
• Nguyen Thi Mai Hoa, Vietnam National University,
  Hanoi / University of Queensland
• Obaidul Hamid, University of Dhaka / University
  of Queensland
• Wu Hsin-fei, Shu Zen College of Medicine and
  Management, Taiwan
• Minglin Li, School of Foreign Languages, Ludong
  University, Shandong, PRC School of Education,
  University of Queensland, Australia
• Dyah Sunggingwati, Universitas Mulawarman,
  Indonesia / University of Queensland
• Jocylen Graf, Hanyang University, Seoul, South
  Korea (with assistance from Kim Jae Hui and Choi
  Insun)
• Keiko Ota, Wings English Language School, Kobe
  Japan

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Abstract /

• The possibilities and limits of intervention in
  language policies (LP) in a number of polities in
  East Asia are examined. The background to the
  language planning situation in those polities is
  given using summary tables that provide an
  overview of the language situation and language
  policy in the region (Handout). Then, eight
  polity specific examples of successes and
  failures in planning for European languages are
  given. Finally, the common threads are drawn
  together on the extent to which intervention in
  LP is possible or is limited in the East Asian
  region.

• Translated text in Japanese

4
Presentation Overview

• Introduction
• Polity case studies
• Bangladesh
• China
• Indonesia
• Japan
• Koreas
• Singapore
• Taiwan
• Vietnam
• Summary findings

• Japanese translation

5
Introduction

• Paper looks across the horizontal axis of the
  Symposium
• Provides a context for the vertical axis, the
  in-depth studies
• It looks at LPP in 8 polities for trends
• Notes language use has been shaped by
  geopolitical events
• Examines the impact of external languages on LPP
• Given its high impact, English is highlighted

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Introduction Language Contact

• Some factors in language spread
• Trade internally, from the Arabian peninsula,
  Europe
• Religious proselytisation Arabic various
  European languages
• Colonization conducted through various
  European (and Asian) languages
• Languages to access overseas education and
  technology
• Wars of aggression links to European, North
  American, Asian colonial development
• The geopolitics of the cold war, for Russian
  and English
• English as an economic world language or lingua
  franca.

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LP Successes and Failures in Bangladesh-1

• Public-private domain distinction underpins
  English planning efforts in Bangladesh.
• English-Bangla is tied in sort of zero-sum
  relationship in the public sector.
• English use is limited to domains of education,
  higher court and parts of public administration.
• No restrictions on language choice in the private
  sector English is penetrating more in this
  booming sector.
• Bangla-English code-mixing common among educated
  professionals in private sector
• No Banglish at an stage SBE the model.
• Is Bangladesh ESL or EFL?

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LP Successes and Failures in Bangladesh-2

• Independence from Pakistan in 1971 saw Bangla
  used for nation-building purposes reducing the
  role of English from ESL to EFL.
• Reduced role of English in the public sector saw
  the establishment of English-medium education for
  the wealthy.
• Increasing numbers of metro English-medium
  schools marks a social divide in terms of
  English, socioeconomic status and geographic
  location of people.

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LP Successes and Failures in Bangladesh-3

• English introduced in the first grade and has to
  be studied for 13 years
• Introduction of CLT in place of traditional
  structure-based curriculum
• ELT projects for professional development of
  teachers
• Little other FL language teaching occurs

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LP Successes and Failures in Bangladesh-4

• Quantitative expansion of English teaching
  compromises quality teaching. English teaching is
  largely unsuccessful.
• English teaching consumes a large portion of
  limited national resources which nevertheless is
  inadequate.
• English teaching appears to be a white elephant
  project for Bangladesh state commitment to
  English is larger than what is permissible in
  view of national resources.

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LP Successes and Failures in China (PRC)-1

• Russian as the first foreign language in early
  years driven by economic and political motives
  rather than on linguistic basis, leading to
  unbalanced development of other foreign languages
  and shortage of qualified teachers for all FL and
  teaching materials
• English in the PRC became the first FL and
  remained highest status since 1964 one of the
  three compulsory subjects for tertiary education
  started to be offered for primary school students
  in 2001

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LP Successes and Failures in China (PRC )-2

• Other European languages not national but
  encouraged at all levels by government. Major
  ones available French, Russian, German, Spanish,
  plus Japanese and Korean
• Successes and failures Success in implementing
  national policies to spread Russian and then
  English Failure in systematic foreign language
  planning, e.g., shortage of teachers, unrealistic
  curriculum, unsuccessful English education in
  primary schools, etc.

13
LP Successes and Failures in Indonesia -1

• Early local language as mother tongue available
  in some districts only
• Bahasa Indonesia as national and official
  language Kindergarten to tertiary education
• English a compulsory subject from primary to
  university level
• Despite 6 changes to the curriculum, English
  proficiency not acceptable students unable to
  speak

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LP Successes and Failures in Indonesia -2

• Limited teaching of foreign languages German,
  French, Arabic, Japanese, or Mandarin
• Taught secondary and tertiary level
• Secondary level in Language Department from
  Grade 11
• Relies on the limited availability of specialist
  teachers

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LP Successes and Failures in Indonesia -3

• European languages in non formal education in
  big cities Jakarta, Surabaya, Bandung, and Medan
  or through auspices of foreign governments
• Similarities selected teachers, small classes,
  supporting facilities, language laboratories,
  good learning.
• Non formal, European language teaching provides a
  model for success compared to formal education in
  English taught as the first foreign language.

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LP Successes and Failures in Japan-1

• Overview
• Actual foreign language use in Japan
• increasing interactions with other Asian
  countries
• Limited European language use
• FL Policy
• English
• an international language
• a necessary tool

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LP Successes and Failures in Japan-2

• Exclusive Promotion of English
• Action Plan to Cultivate Japanese with English
  Ability
• SELHi
• The JET Progamme
• ELT in elementary schools
• Other European Languages
• gradual change toward diversity

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LP Successes and Failures in Japan-3

• Private Sector
• Powerful agency
• Annual Sales136 billion yen
• 797 thousand students
• Native speakersrole model
• Conclusion
• Strong inclination toward English
• Anglo-American role model?
• Public view poor outcomes
• Popularity of private schools
• Necessity to learn English outside school system
• Action Plan

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LP Successes and Failures in Koreas -1

• Situation in the two Koreas different
• North Korea little is known. Little outside
  contact so little actual need. Chinese, Russian
  and since 1964 English.
• English learning increasing to be able to
  understand Korean language use in the South.

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LP Successes and Failures in Koreas -2

• South Korea English compulsory from Grade 3
• Strong emphasis on learning English
• Dissatisfaction with public education results
• Many study abroad, after school, language
  villages.
• Other FL available at secondary level as 3rd
  languages but rarely chosen
• Most popular are Chinese characters, Japanese,
  Chinese, German and French

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LP Successes and Failures in Koreas -3

• Intensive learning of English for economic
  security
• American English the favored variety
• As Europeans learn English, demand for French and
  German falls
• Arabic and Spanish niche languages increase for
  trade
• Japanese and Chinese becoming more popular
• Other FL programs at University level in decline

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LP Successes and Failures in Taiwan-1

• Major foreign language policies changed with
  shift of political parties from overtly
  encouraging ? effectively supervising
• Nationalist Party or the Kuomintang (KMT) was in
  power from 1949 to 2000 MOE established Applied
  Foreign Languages programs in 1993
• Democratic Progress Party (DPP) since 2000 MOE
  focus on evaluating quality English as a
  semi-official language by 2008

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LP Successes and Failures in Taiwan-2

• Successes and failures of the LP by the MOE in
  the KMT era
• ?More students got to major in English by
  enrolling in the AFL departments.
• ?More people were aware of the importance of
  English to Taiwans future development in the
  globalization.
• ?Without a proper evaluation mechanism, the
  general English major students language
  proficiency has not been enhanced but declined
  compared to that of other Asian countries.

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LP Successes and Failures in Taiwan-3

• Successes and failures of the LP by the MOE in
  the DPP era
• ? Get rid of the unqualified AFL departments in
  all the tertiary level institutions with their
  own language planning.
• ? Set up concrete goals
• (English/Mandarin)
• Bilingual campus (inc., all the web pages)
• Bilingual city, street and business signs
• ? Practical implementation difficulties still
  exist.

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LP Successes and Failures in Taiwan-4

• Current implementation difficultiesfrom an
  insiders viewpoints
• 1. For technology and vocation (TAV) education,
  English for special purpose (ESP) curricula still
  need much cross-disciplinary cooperation.
• 2. A language-in-education policy like
  Speaking English Only Day is still hard to
  implement on campus due to EFL teachers and
  learners psychological barriers.

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LP Successes and Failures in Taiwan-5

• 3. A Lack of globalization viewpoints
• Ss generally lack of motivations, purposes or
  goals for learning foreign languages, unless its
  for passing exams. Exchange programs might help
  on this issue.
• Conclusion
• Insiders viewpoints should be included in
  the governments language plans to avoid
  unqualified language education and to achieve
  goals efficiently.

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LP Successes and Failures in Singapore -1

• Human resources are seen as the key to
  development human capital for nation building,
  i.e. education.
• Fosters English knowing bilingualism with
  Mandarin, Malay and Tamil as mother tongues.
• Speak Mandarin campaign displaces Chinese
  dialects from 1989
• English is gatekeeper and taught as a first
  language

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LP Successes and Failures in Singapore -2

• English L1 population is increasing, but so is
  the use of Singlish (Speak Good English campaign
  from 2000) and the need to teach mother tongues
  as SLs (Mandarin Tamil).
• Top HS students given the opportunity to study a
  third language, French, German
• Little incentive or desire to study third
  languages

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LP Successes and Failures in Singapore -3

• Policy successes in moving to an English speaking
  bilingualism moving to Mandarin over dialects
• Policy uncertainity over maintenance of mother
  tongues control over standard variety of English
• Economic focus on English as a lingua franca has
  reduced diversity created socio-economic
  language-based distinctions.

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LP Successes and Failures in Vietnam-1

• Major factors
• Colonization (e.g French, English)
• Diplomat relation (e.g Russian)
• Economic Reforms and Trend ( e.g English)

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LP Successes and Failures in Vietnam-2

• Data from a recent survey showed that of all
  junior secondary schools, 99.1 per cent teach
  English, while only 0.6 per cent teach French,
  0.2 per cent Russian, and 0.1 per cent Chinese
  (Loc, 2005).This reflects the role of different
  foreign language in Vietnam

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LP Successes and Failures in Vietnam-3

• Although English is the most powerful foreign
  language in the country. There is still
  significant space for other European foreign
  languages. (French, German, Russia)
• Russian its role in Vietnam governments
  diplomat relation and national defence
• French economic, educational, and cultural
  exchange

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Summary of Issues

• Role of languages of European origin in modern
  Asia
• Increase in teaching of Asian languages
• Early introduction of English
• English and changes to the language ecology
• English in Asia Indigenization and objections
• Identity, linguistic rights, transnationalism in
  Asia
• Resource implications

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The role of languages of European origin in
modern Asia

• Beyond English teaching, languages of European
  origin are not widely taught or available through
  the public system in Asia.
• Not necessarily learned for their use in Europe,
  but for their use as world languages in Africa
  and Latin America.
• Much support occurs through foreign government
  programs, or private ethnic sponsored groups.

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The increase in teaching of Asian languages

• In North Asia there seems to be an increase in
  the teaching of other Asian languages. (Ch, Jp,
  Kr)
• While English may be the general lingua franca,
  north Asians are also increasingly learning each
  others languages as foreign languages.
• As space in the curriculum is limited, there is a
  danger in looking just at European languages in
  Asian polities rather than considering the whole
  language teaching ecology.

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The early introduction of English

• Nunan (2003) Trend for English being introduced
  at an early age has intensified under pressure of
  economic competition.
• Such teaching requires massive funding special
  early childhood teacher training teachers with
  excellent language skills books materials.
• As with much LP, the decision is mainly
  political against FL research evidence
  available?
• Predict massive failures for such programs and
  the waste of resources.

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English and changes to the language ecology

• As English has become increasingly important in
  Asia, it has had an impact on other languages.
• Singapore it has increased as a mother tongue
  requires a change in the way Mandarin (and Tamil)
  are taught in schools with Mandarin SL programs
  being trialed
• Its increasing presence in the curriculum may
  reduce space for other languages to be taught,
  including minority languages.

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English in Asia Indigenization and objections

• A cline of English varieties from standard
  English to substrate varieties indicating both
  indigenization and identity markers (e.g.
  Singlish, Manglish, Chinglish and Japlish,
  Banglish?).
• Resistance to spread of English or other foreign
  languages more difficult to cite e.g. increased
  social stratification in Bangladesh?
• Despite English being a required subject in many
  polities, many students seem demotivated. Is this
  resistance, and/or problems related to
  instruction.

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Identity, linguistic rights and transnationalism
in Asia

• The increased presence of English in a fixed
  length curriculum, means something else must go.
• Most new introductions except for programs like
  teaching mathematics and science in English in
  Malaysia from Form 1 do not make use of
  bilingual principles.
• Curricular additions put pressures on 3rd
  languages, whether they are minority languages or
  2nd foreign languages.

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Resource implications

• Language programs are inherently expensive
  problems of finance for some countries in Asia.
• Bangladesh and Indonesia funding for normal
  programs, the training of teachers, etc. is
  inadequate. Little or no funding for languages
  which consume a lot of resources.
• Much European language teaching relies on funding
  from foreign donors.
• So, European foreign language teaching seems
  unlikely to increase.

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Conclusions

• Much of Asia has always been multilingual
• Underlying language learning strategy shifting to
  English knowing bilingualism
• English is becoming an Asian language
  indigenized and used for local intercultural
  communication.
• Where this process is advanced, concern about how
  English is affecting the mother tongues, plus the
  growing development of local English varieties.
• Globalization is putting pressure on minority
  languages and the resources available to teach
  them.