Formation of the Modern Middle East

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Formation of the Modern Middle East

• The Middle East After 1919

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The Middle East in WWI The Ottoman Empire

• Ottomans fought with Germany and Austria Hungary
• Challenge British control of the Suez canal
  their colonies
• Regain territory lost to Nationalist groups in
  the Balkans

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Ottoman Empire 1915-1918

• Outgunned
• Undermanned
• Industry couldnt keep up
• Eventually defeated by British invasions into
  modern day Iraq and Russia from the north

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British Wheelings And Dealings

• Muslims
• Promise disgruntled regions full independence if
  they help Allied Powers in WWI.

Lawrence of Arabia
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Hussein-McMahon Letters, 1916

• ....Britain is prepared to recognize and uphold
  the independence of the Arabs in all regions
  lying within the frontiers proposed by the Sharif
  of Mecca....

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Wheeling and Dealing continue
The SykesPicot Agreement of 1916, officially
known as the "Asia Minor Agreement", was a secret
agreement between the governments of the United
Kingdom and France,  with the assent of Russia,
defining their respective spheres of
influence and control in Western Asia after the
expected downfall of the Ottoman
Empire during World War I. It effectively divided
the Arab provinces of the Ottoman Empire outside
the Arabian peninsula into areas of future
British and French control or influence. (Turkey)
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Sykes-Picot secret Agreement
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British Wheeling and Dealing cont

• Jews- Balfour Declaration 1917
• His Majestys Government views with favor the
  establishment in Palestine of a national home for
  the Jewish people and will use their best
  endeavors to facilitate the achievement of this
  object, it being clearly understood that nothing
  shall be done which may prejudice the civil and
  religious rights of existing non-Jewish
  communities in Palestine

Sir Arthur James Balfour, Br. Foreign Sec.
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Ottoman Empire-Collapse 1919-1922

• Great Britain, and other Arabs eventually defeat
  the Ottomans
• Empire is dissolved by British at end of war
• Ottoman Empire NOT mentioned in Versailles Treaty
  (ending WWI) but Great Britain gets jurisdiction
  over former Ottoman territory.
• Lands are partitioned (divided)
• Nationalist Groups want independence (those that
  were friendly to England were put in charge)
• Turkey gains independence (former Ottoman Empie
  reduced to 1 independent country)

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War Ends- Arab world expects deals to be honored
1917 Bolshevik revo occurs, they (Russia) leak
the Sykes-Picot agreement, Arab mistrust begins
King Faisal of Syria Elected by congress
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Treaty of Versailles

• Allied Powers Win
• Central Powers (Germany, Ottoman Empire, Italy)
  lose colonies, see territories broken up
• League of Nations
• Mandate System
• UK, France administer regions until theyre
  Ready for independence
• How is this different from a colony?

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Oil discovered in the Middle East

• First discovered on Masjid-I Suleiman in Persia
  (Iraq) in 1908.
• Turkish-Petroleum Co. TPC founded in 1911
  ?drill for oil in Mosul, Mesopotamia (Iraq)
• Britain signed a secret agreement with the sheikh
  of Kuwait who, while outwardly pledging
  allegiance to the Ottoman Sultan in Istanbul,
  promised exclusive oil rights to the British.
• Kuwait became a British protectorate in November,
  1914.
• In 1927, oil was struck in Kirkuk, Iraq, and the
  Iraq Petroleum Co. IPC was created.

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Allies attempt to maintain control over Turkey
following WWI conquest of Ottoman Empire, but
Mustafa Kemal lead successful fight for
independence, establishing modern Turkey. This
derails Allied plans to settle the Kurds and
Assyrians inside modern Turkey borders, forcing
them into Northern Iraq instead, a cause of
ongoing conflict with the majority Arab
population.
Mustafa Kemal
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Caliphate

• The term caliphate, "dominion of a caliph
  ('successor')refers to the first system of
  government established in Islam and represented
  the political unity of the Muslim community.
• In theory, it is an aristocraticconstitutional
  republic, which means that the head of state, the
  Caliph, and other officials are representatives
  of the people and of Islam and must govern
  according to constitutional and religious law, or
  Sharia.
• On March 3, 1924, Mustafa Kemal , as part of his
  reforms, constitutionally abolished the
  institution of the Caliphate. Its powers within
  Turkey were transferred to the Grand National
  Assembly of Turkey, the parliament of the newly
  formed Turkish Republic.
• What about the rest of the Arab territories?

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Arab Independence?

• When the Ottomans departed, the Arabs proclaimed
  an independent state in Damascus (Syria), but
  were too weak, militarily and economically, to
  resist the European powers for long, and Britain
  and France soon established control and
  re-arranged the Middle East to suit themselves.

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New Middle East

• Syria became a French protectorate thinly
  disguised as a League of Nations Mandate.
• The Christian coastal areas were split off to
  become Lebanon, another French protectorate.
• Iraq and Palestine became British mandated
  territories. Iraq became the "Kingdom of Iraq"
  and one of Sharif Hussein's sons, Faisal, was
  installed as the King of Iraq.
• Iraq incorporated large populations of Kurds and
  Assyrians, many of whom had been promised
  independent states of their own.

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New Middle East Cont

• Palestine became the "British Mandate of
  Palestine" and was split in half.
• The eastern half of Palestine became the "Emirate
  of Transjordan" to provide a throne for a
  politically connected family, (one Hussein's
  sons), Abdullah.
• The western half of Palestine was placed under
  direct British administration.
• The already substantial Jewish population was
  allowed to increase. Initially this increase was
  allowed under British protection.
• Most of the Arabian peninsula fell to another
  British ally, Ibn Saud. Saud created the Kingdom
  of Saudi Arabia in 1932. (Oil was discovered in
  Saudi Arabia in 1938)
• The Pahlavi Family put on the throne of Persia.
  (In 1935, Reza Shah Pahlavi instructed foreign
  embassies to call Persia by its ancient Persian
  name, Iran)

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Persia/Iran 1925

• The Pahlavis came to power after Ahmad Shah
  Qajar, the last ruler of the Qajar dynasty,
  proved unable to stop British and Soviet
  encroachment on Iranian sovereignty, was
  overthrown in a military coup, abdicated his
  throne and went to exile in France.
• The National Assembly, known as the Majlis,
  convening as a constituent assembly on December
  12, 1925, deposed the young Ahmad Shah Qajar, and
  declared Reza Shah the new monarch of the
  Imperial State of Persia.
• In 1935, Reza Shah instructed foreign embassies
  to call Persia by its ancient Persian
  name, Iran.

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Reforms in Iran

• Secularization ? seizure of religious lands.
• Adoption of the French civilcode.
• Built the Trans-IranianRailroad.
• Improved education.

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Problems with the division of the Middle East

• Many Nationalist groups not granted independence
• Boundaries are drawn indiscriminately
• No attention paid to tribal lands
• Result Arabs are distrustful of European powers
  especially the British

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English controlled side
King Abdullah controlled side
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Oil and the Middle East

• American oil companies Texaco Chevron,
  gainoil concessions in Bahrainin 1929.
• In 1933, American oil companies win an
  oilconcession in Saudi Arabia.
• ARAMCO Arab-American Oil Co, is created in
  1939.

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Middle East during WW2

• Germans wanted North African Colonies, the Suez
  Canal in order to gain access to Arabian oil
  fields.
• Germans offered full independence to middle east
  and African states if they supported Axis cause
• Some political and religious leaders supported
  Germans in order to attain independence from
  British, French

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Middle East Post WW2

• Independence is granted to many states
• - In 1945, at British prompting, Egypt, Iraq,
  Lebanon, Saudi Arabia, Syria, Transjordan, and
  Yemen formed the Arab League to coordinate policy
  between the Arab states.
• The state of Israel is formed by a British
  Mandate (with support of the UN US) in 1948.
  (impact of Holocaust)
• -large Jewish populations of Europe leave to go
  back to their homeland.

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Settlemment

• On 29 November 1947, the United Nations General
  Assembly approved a plan to resolve the
  Arab-Jewish conflict by partitioning Palestine
  into two states, one Jewish and one Arab.
• Each state would comprise three major sections,
  linked by extraterritorial crossroads the Arab
  state would also have an enclave at Jaffa.
• The Jews would get 56 of the land, of which most
  was in the Negev Desert their area would contain
  499,000 Jews and 438,000 Arabs.
• The Palestinian Arabs would get 42 of the land,
  which had a population of 818,000 Palestinian
  Arabs and 10,000 Jews.
• In consideration of its religious significance,
  the Jerusalem area, including Bethlehem, with
  100,000 Jews and an equal number of Palestinian
  Arabs, was to become a Corpus separatum, to be
  administered by the UN.

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Arab Reaction the Cold War

• US and Western powers support Israel
• USSR tries to influence Arab countries
• Several Regional conflicts break out
• Arab Israel War of 1948
• 1967 Six day war
• 1968-72 War of Attrition
• 1981 attacked Iraq
• 1982 Lebanon
• Israel holds its independence to this day
  (extreme Anti-Israeli stance in many Middle East
  countries)

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Elsewhere

• Iran
• 1950s saw US-backed installation of a Shah
• 1970s Shah forced from throne again by
  Fundamentalist Clerics, led by Ayatollah Khomeini

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Elsewhere

• Iraq
• 1960s Baath party takes control of Iraq
• Secular Government
• Late 1970s Saddam Hussein takes control

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Elsewhere

• Afghanistan
• 1970s- invaded by Soviet Union
• US-backed muhajideen against Soviets
• After Soviet Collapse, establishment of Taliban
  Government

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Elsewhere

• Saudi Arabia
• people enjoy decent standards of living financial
  benefits from government
• Little- to no social reforms
• Women cant drive
• Limited ability to criticize govt

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RESULTS

• US is last major super power left after 1991 with
  a great interest in the Middle East (no one else
  left to blame)
• Middle Eastern countries have been pawns of the
  western powers since the early 20th century.
• Anti-American, Anti- Western, and Anti-Israeli
  thought common in many countries and
  organizations.