An Associative Memory Framework for Addiction and Prevention

1
An Associative Memory Framework for Addiction and
Prevention

• Alan Stacy
• Presented to the Research Institute on
  Addictions, Buffalo, NY, May 2004
• http//tprc.usc.edu/

2

• Elements of Framework
• Measurement possibilities examples of findings
  in drug use
• Improvement within a new center

3
I. Three Elements of Associative Memory Framework

• Associative memory connectionism
• Implicit processes
• Neurobiological plausibility

4
Examples of Theories Modeling Associative Memory

• Connectionist approaches that model conceptual
  associations
• Multiple-trace (Hintzman)
• Hopfield Networks (e.g., Hopfield Tank Masson)
• Recurrent Networks (McClelland and Rumelhart
  Smith DeCoster)
• Others (eg., Nelson Murdock Eich, etc).

• Mixed models (Symbolic models, with some elements
  of connectionism ACT J.R. Anderson)

5
Connectionist Approaches Basic Idea

• Cognition is
• Very dynamic, can change continuously
• Reflected in a pattern of activation in memory
• This pattern is dependent on
• The input or sequence (e.g., situation, preceding
  cognitive state)
• Associations in memory
• Symbolic concepts are not necessary (e.g., norms,
  attitudes, beliefs, etc).
• But they can be re-defined in terms of very
  NON-stable concepts
• Or combine into mixed models

6
Examples of Evidence for Associative Memory
Processes

• Cued-recall Strongly associated memory cues lead
  to best memory
• False memoryFalse memories are predicted by
  strongest associates of words in a study list
• Semantic Priming Strong associates are often
  best primes

• Research in Amnesics Amnesics remember previous
  word pairs (on implicit tests of memory) if the
  words are strongly associated in memory.
• Neuroimaging associated cues (pictures, images,
  objects) trigger specific responses in the brain
• Other paradigms Also show importance of strong
  associations in memory (humans and animals)

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History of Related Ideas
Association has been a CENTRAL concept in all of
these approaches but is usually ignored in
prevention
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Two examples of specific theories of associative
memory

• Multiple trace theory (Hintzman)
• Hopfield Network (Hopfield Tank)

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Multiple Memory Traces Encode Associations Among
Emotion, Situations, and Behavior
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Memory Activation Depends on the Overlap of
Cognitive State (Input) and Trace Features
Input
Traces
The cognitive state activates memory traces
having the same features. The activated traces
may have additional features, which can influence
behavior
11
Hopfield Neural Network for Drug Concepts or
Situations in Adolescence
12
Why not expectancy?

• Semantic priming literature expectancy is a
  postaccess decision process not an automatic
  memory process
• Memory literature Not used anywhere to measure
  or conceptualize associative memory
• All cognitive literatures It is not as general a
  concept as associative memory
• Other literatures Occasionally used to describe
  a predictive relationship in some associative
  paradigms

• If the concept helps your research or
  intervention, use it!
• Expectancy can be called a relationship or
  association
• Alcohol literature Often used synonymously with
• Belief
• Subjective probability
• An outcome (e.g., have fun)
• A network
• If-then rule
• Typically NOT linked to triggering cues (an
  essential concept from Tolman,etc)

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Another Critical Element Implicit Cognition

• Many theories of associative memory do not
  postulate control processes or explicit
  recollection as central to memory activation
• Instead, they imply an implicit process
• Some of these theories have been used formally to
  model implicit or automatic processes
• PIER (Nelson et al)
• Parallel Distributing Processing (PDP Smith
  Mclelland Rumelhardt)
• Spreading activation (Anderson)

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Implicit Memory and Cognition

• Revealed on tests that do not require or foster
• Deliberate or conscious recollections
• Introspections about the causes of ones
  behavior
• Affects behavior through an automatic or at least
  relatively spontaneous process (e.g., memory
  activation), no conscious weighing of pros and
  cons.
• The framework does not require ANY traditional
  health behavior concept

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People engage in rational decisions regarding
substance use (weigh pros and cons)A sort of
cognitive algebra is implied, consistent with
symbolic approachesbut Addiction is almost
prototypical example of irrational behavior

• A CONTRAST
• Primary Assumption of Most Traditional Approaches
  to Drug Use Prevention

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Examples of theories and research areas that rely
on rational processing assumptions

• Health Belief Model
• Utility Theory
• Theory of Reasoned Action its Derivatives
• Most Attitude Theories
• Most Prevention Research

17
Areas underscoring importance of implicit
processes

• Associative memory
• Decision theory Kahneman (2003)
• The automatic or implicit system is classified as
  System 1 the default system for making
  decisions.
• Social cognition
• Several approaches underscore importance of
  implicit cognition
• Neuroscience
• Many learning memory processes involve brain
  regions not involving conscious processing
  (Squire White Knowlton, etc.)

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Three memory systems (based on White, 1996)
involved in associative memory and drug use
AMYGDALA (incentive)
CAUDATE-PUTAMEN (habit)
HIPPOCAMPUS (declarative)
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A Broader Associative Memory Framework of
Alternative Hypotheses

• White suggests the direct (dotted-line) link on
  top (path W).
• Shultz (1998) suggests pattern matching occurs
  via association cortex, also implicated in
  semantic priming Gabrielli, 1998 paths A-B.)
• Reward signal is broadcast to frontal cortex
  (Shultz, path C)

From Stacy, Ames, Knowlton, in press cf.
Franken, in press.
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A Cartoon Showing the General Idea
21
Amnesic data provide some of the best evidence
for distinct neural basis of different types of
memory Implicit and Explicit
22
Examples Shimamura Squire (1984, JEP Exp. 4)

• Study Trial. Korsakoff patients and alcoholic
  controls rated single words one-at-a-time for how
  much they liked the word (e.g., BABY).
• Test. After the study trial, participants were
  asked to perform a different task-- write the
  first word that comes to mind in response to a
  presented word (e.g., CHILD).

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Vaidya, Gabrieli, Keane, Monti (1995)
Similar Results
Note Visual presentation

• Overall, controls had significantly better recall
  (F11.1)
• Controls did not differ significantly in implicit
  memory (F
• Implicit associative memory test detected effect
  of study trial (F 6.24).

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II. Some Measurement Possibilities in Research on
Alcohol and Other Drugs

• Tests from basic cognitive research used in drug
  use
• Some of our tests of associative memory

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Examples of Cognitive Paradigms from Basic
Research

• Lexical decision in semantic priming
• Word naming in semantic priming
• Flicker paradigm
• Implicit association test (IAT)
• Affective priming
• Cue-effectiveness in extralist cued-recall
• False memory
• Process dissociation
• Stroop
• Word and picture association

Implicit cognition, associative memory framework
important new development in 10th Special Report
to US Congress on Alcohol and Health No test is
the gold standard
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Associative Memory Predicts Alcohol Marijuana
Use
Previous Alcohol Use

• Short-term prospective study of 340 college
  students (R2.82)
• Predictive effects replicate in cross-sectional
  studies of marijuana use, HIV-risk, and in
  diverse samples including
• Adult drug offenders
• High-risk (continuation high school) adolescents
• Adult driving-under-influence offenders
• Hispanic and White ethnicities

.54
Association Responses
.33
Beliefs About Alcohol Use
.09
Later Alcohol Use
Acculturation
.12
Sensation Seeking
Gender
Stacy, 1997, J.Ab.Psych
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Experimental Evidence Revealing Implications of
Word Association (WA) for Implicit Processes

• Research in Amnesics People with impaired
  conscious memory show normal memory on word
  assocation tests of implicit memory word
  association detects memory
• such tests do not require deliberate
  recollection.
• Primed free-association in normal subjects
  Strong associates are best cues word association
  detects memory.
• Extralist Cued-recall Strong associates are best
  cues
• False memory false memories are predicted by
  strongest associates of words in a study list
• Semantic Priming Strong associates revealed on
  association tests are often best primes

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Example of outcome-behavior association measure
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Some Pros Cons

• PROS
• Unique in measuring relative access compared to
  all competitors
• A consistent predictor of memory responses in
  diverse cognitive paradigms
• Similar technique shows predictive utility in
  advertising research (top-of-mind awareness)
• No demonstrably better measure of association in
  memory
• Can measure memory even in amnesics

• CONS
• Cannot rule out filtering
• Must code responses
• 1st response may not be enough
• Does not sound as rigorous as RT tests
• Bound to be noise cannot be more than a rough
  measure of association

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Example of other, similar association measures

• Continued association (Szalay et al)
• Multiple responses are obtained (very useful)
• Top-of-mind awareness (e.g., 1st brand comes to
  mind)
• Media research (predicts purchasing)
• Other associations, e.g., between alcohol and
• Program material or skills
• Images/nonverbal memory

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Example in advertising effects nonverbal memory

• Participants are asked to
• Think of a television commercial, the very first
  that pops to mind.
• Form an image of that commercial
• Sketch their image
• Average Kappa for coder agreement .80 (p .001 Stacy, Pearce et al., 2004, Psych
  Marketing)
• Why sketch code? Verify that it is a real ad, a
  real memory (proven recall in ad literature)

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Example of a students nonverbal response in
open-ended item illustrates that nonverbal
memory can be assessed
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The test assesses relative memory
Example 2 from same sample test
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Other example of associative memory measure
semantic priming in word naming
Alcohol-related prime-target pairs

• beer

• She felt good after she had the

drunk
They were more friendly when they were
Neutral pairs, with alcohol targets
drunk
They said they were
beer
They said it was the
Weingardt, Stacy, Leigh (1996 college students)
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Drinking habits predicted facilitation score
(faster responses to alcohol primes)
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A less consistent finding
37
Effect sizes as correlations(reversed signs)


Small to moderate correlations
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Bottom line on measures?

• There are feasible measures, with basic research
  support and some evidence in drug abuse area
• Other research teams also show support
• These measures can be improved further
  validated
• New measures need to be developed in a parallel
  effort
• Such measures seem capable of assessing mediators
  of behavior AND program effects

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III. Attempts at Improvement Prevention
Applications in a New Center
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Transdisciplinary Drug Abuse Prevention Research
Center (USC TPRC)

• Co-investigators/researchers
• Susan Ames (multiple roles)
• Stan Azen
• Lourdes Baezconde-Garbanati
• Chih-Ping Chou (stat core leader)
• Roger Drake
• Peggy Gallaher
• Elahe Nezami
• Paula Palmer (multiple roles)
• Anamara Ritt-Olson
• Ping Sun
• Jennifer Unger (multiple roles)
• Tom Valente (project PI)

• Director
• Alan Stacy
• Co-directors
• Andy Johnson (also training core leader)
• Steve Sussman (also a project PI)
• Staff administrator
• James Pike
• http//tprc.usc.edu/

41
Most General Statement in Request for
Applications (RFA)NIDA Sought To

• Expand the knowledge base of basic research with
  strong translational potential for informing the
  design of drug abuse prevention interventions
• Accelerate the development of new prevention
  interventions arising from transdisciplinary
  research interactions
• Test research-based interventions

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Goals Are Addressed by Primary Components of
Center

• Two main projects
• Associative memory social networks.
• Developmental (pilot) projects and supplement
  project
• Training core
• postdoc awards funds for pilot projects student
  training
• Statistical core
• experts in structural modeling, biostatistics,
  psychometrics, assessment
• Advisory board consultants
• Basic research and prevention in the community

43
Examples of General Questions in Drug Abuse and
Prevention

• How does prevention REALLY work?
• How can prevention effects be improved and
  maintained over a long period?
• How do drug habits get started and why do they
  often escalate?
• How can we better understand the mechanisms of
  habit formation and escalation?
• How do social influences REALLY operate in drug
  abuse, and how can they best be tapped in
  prevention?

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Reach Out to Basic Researchers in Multiple Areas
Memory
Social Networks
Culture
TPRC Reaches Out Foster Collab, Innovations
Training
Traits Emotion
Neuroscience
Basic to Applied- Translation
Other Areas?
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One example 3 Areas of Basic Cognitive Research
Stacy, Ames, Sussman
Sussman, Valente, Johnson
Knowlton
De Houwer?
Tprc team
Nelson
Chou Tprc team
Sussman, Ames, Stacy
Stacy, Ames
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Examples of other efforts of center

• Assessing executive functions in high-risk
  adolescents
• A possible moderator of effects of implicit
  cognition on behavior
• Social networks

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Summary

• TRPC Center Tries to apply some of the most
  promising findings from multiple areas of basic
  research.
• Associative Memory Framework Our work fosters
  use and development of this framework
• Can be seen as a general framework not owned by
  any single team other specifics are viable.
• Measures We want to help foster development of
  new methods of assessing drug-related associative
  memories.
• Association measures should be taken to their
  limit.
• Other measures need to be refined/developed

• http//tprc.usc.edu/

48
Questions or Discussion?

• Moderator slide for exec functions
• Moderator slide for associative effects
• Intervention slide (prevention)
• Specific findings on nonverbal, associative
  memory test

49
Influence of other variables?Examples of
interaction hypotheses

• Cognitions may be implicitly activated, but
  individual differences in executive functioning
  may influence whether these cognitions are
  applied to behavior
• Individual differences in neural systems of
  reward may influence development of connections
  in memory

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Hypoth 1. Indicators of Executive Functioning May
Moderate the Effects of Implicit Cognition on
Drug Use
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Hypoth 2 Individual differences may moderate
growth of associations involving drugs

• Mechanism?
• Possibly genetic effect on dopamine (reward)
  system (e.g., Sobol et al., 1999)

Growth of Associative Strength among Strong
Positive Affect, Cues, Drug Use
Experimental Drug Use
Growth of Addiction, Habit
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Intervention Framework for Prevention

• Focus on input before behavior takes place
• Focus on connections of prevention material or
  skills, especially with the input
• Goal is to increase prevention-related memory
  activation

• Consistent with
• Connectionist models
• Traditional expectancy theories of Tolman
  Bolles, etc.
• Not addressed by most alcohol expectancy research
  or prevention
• Again, cues connections not a focus

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Intervention Framework
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General Characteristics of Center Projects

• Relatively high risk youth
• Both projects use a previously documented
  effective prevention program (TND Steve Sussman,
  PI) as a springboard
• Associative memory assessment and processes in
  drug use habit and prevention
• Social networks used to study and improve program
  effects
• The Center will go beyond the focus of the 2 main
  projects!

55
Project Towards No Drug Abuse (TND) Awards

• 1. NIDA model program
• 2. CSAP/SAMSHA model program
• 3. Health Canada exemplary program
• 4. Sociometrics, Inc. model program
• 5. U.S. Department of Education model program for
  drug abuse prevention grantees
• 6. Model program for numerous state Departments
  of Health and Education

56
The Motivation-Skills-Decision Making Model
(MSD) of Problem
Behavior
Motivation/ Cognitive Misperceptions
Behavior Social and -Violence-
related Self-control Skills -Drug
use Decision Making
57
Project TND Curriculum
Outline Session 1 Introduction Communication
and Active Listening Session 2 Stereotyping Sessio
n 3 Myths and Denial Session 4 Chemical
Dependency Session 5 Talk Show Session
6 Marijuana Panel Session 7 Tobacco Basketball
and Cessation Session 8 Stress, Health, and
Goals Session 9 Self-control Session 10 Positive
and Negative Thought and Behavior
Loops Session 11 Perspectives Session
12 Decision-making and Commitment Note
Three new lessons added to the TND-I 9 sessions
curriculum that are constituents of the newer
TND-II 12-session curriculum.
58
Associative memory measures (spontaneous
cognition) predicted HIV risk behavior
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Specific results on DET
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Some convergence of DET with other tests no
confounding with false positives or other
variablesaAll factor loadings p this loading
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Shultz (1998)
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From Shultz (1998) Broadcast from midbrain to
striatum and frontal cortex

• VTA ventral tegmental region of midbrain
• SN substantia nigra region of midbrain
• Midbrain top of brain stem
• Caudate-Putamen region of striatum in basal
  ganglia

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Survey measures of expectancy Our research

• Outcome expectancies predict alcohol and other
  drug use, as long as 9 years (S,N,B, 1991)
• Expectancies about positive and negative outcomes
  are clearly separate constructs (S,W,M, 1990 S,
  M, P, 1993 L S, 1993 others)
• Positive expectancies are often, but not always,
  better predictors (LS, 2004 S,W,M, 1990 etc)
• Others research often shows two factors, even
  they they rotate or model more (do a scree test
  on their eigenvalues!)
• Something about survey measures of expectancy are
  important
• But what are they?
• Self-perceptions or other inferences
• Another measure of behavior
• Memories (no evidence anywhere if so, please
  show me!)
• If-then rules

66
What about arousal/sedation?

• In about 5 studies on self-generated outcomes, we
  do not find more than 1 clearly arousal-related
  words
• The norms on word association show that some
  arousal words clearly have a meaning of
  POSITIVE AFFECT
• D. Nelson norms Excited happy
• Happy is by FAR the strongest associate (.37 vs
  .03)
• Associative memory techniques may derive
  COMPLETELY different answers compared to factor
  analysis or MDS (not just 1st associations in any
  method)
• MDS has some very subjective steps fitting words
  to different dimensions (is it really arousal, or
  positive?).
• Overall, I dont think there is substantial
  evidence from multiple methods. Know of any? Case
  may not be closed

67
What about multiple expectancy dimensions?

• Many early factor analyses really showed TWO
  factors in a scree test, but more factors were
  analyzed (pos, neg).
• Some words in expectancy scales are NOT
  self-generated spontaneously by subjects
• Words used to describe alcohol effects are verbal
  labels for SOMETHING. Not necessarily isomorphic
  with that something
• Positive affect? (fun, happy, talkative, relaxed,
  etc)
• Researchers read too much into the words or use
  procedures that do NOT evaluate semantic
  associations. The bottom line involves the words
  associative structure in memory, not a factor
  analysis excited happy

68
Is word association truly an implicit test?

• In the proper experimental paradigm, probably so
  (e.g., amnesics vs. non manipulate encoding)
• In a study without an encoding trial, we do not
  know
• There is nothing to stop explicit retrieval or
  executive processing
• There is no comparison with an explicit retrieval
  condition
• It does take time to write down a wordthere is
  time for other processes to be engaged
• Yet, word association PREDICTS implicit memory
  processes in other paradigms (false memory,
  extralist cued recall, primed free association,
  semantic priming, at least)
• If word association PREDICTS later implicit
  processing, then
• It is very useful even though it may sometimes
  involve other processes

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Lexical versus Semantic Associations
Suppose you never saw these words before and did
not know their meanings

• Cervesa Corona

Now suppose you experienced these word pairs
repeatedly over time, but still learning nothing
else about them

• Later, if you see the letters Cervesa, you may
  access an association to the letters in Corona
  (their look or sound)
• But a picture or a word for beer would not lead
  you to think Corona

Cervesa Corona
Cervesa Corona
Cervesa Corona
Cervesa Corona
Cervesa Corona
Cervesa Corona
Cervesa Corona
Cervesa Corona
Cervesa Corona
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  Who are the five BEST LEADERS in this class?
  Think about the five people in this class who
would make the best leaders for working on group
projects. Write up to 5 names on the lines below,
starting with the best leader on the first line.
After you write their name look at the list of
names on the roster that has been provided. Match
the name to the number and write the number in
the boxes. If you cant think of five names in
this class, then leave the extra lines blank. You
can name yourself if you want.  
Also asked who are your five best friends
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Providing dates..
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Many Associative Memory Models are Connectionist
Approaches
74

• Implicit cognition (IC)
• General Project Aims
• Examines drug abuse prevention program effects
• from an implicit cognition perspective.
• Proposes that behavior is governed by the
  current
• pattern of activation in memory activation
  is often
• primarily an implicit or relatively
  spontaneous process.
• Assumes drug use is not primarily governed by
• reflective decisions in which alternative
  consequences
• are weighed.

75
Neuroscience basic research perspectives
support a distinction between systems
76
Implicit Cognition Project Specific Aims

• Study 1
• Evaluate and refine assessments of associative
  memory processes and drug abuse
• Evaluate three-wave predictive effects of
  associative memory on drug abuse

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Example of Continued Association Methods for
Cultural Research
(Szalay and colleagues)
78
Cultural Differences in Association
(Szalay and
colleagues)
79
Study 1General Predictionsof Drug Abuse by
AssociativeMemoryMeasures
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Study 1 3-Wave Prediction Model
T1
T2
T3
Drug Abuse
Drug Abuse
Drug Abuse
T1
T2
T3
Associative
Associative
Associative
Memory
Memory
Memory
C
T1
T2
T3
Outcome
Outcome
Outcome
Expectancy
Expectancy
Expectancy
T1
T2
T3
Sensation
Sensation
Sensation
Seeking
Seeking
Seeking
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Implicit Cognition Project Specific Aims

• Study 2
• Evaluate effects of TND curriculum on memory
  and implicit cognition processes
• Apply the best assessments from the preceding
  study

82
Implicit Cognition Project Specific Aims
continued.

• Communicate findings to other Center projects so
  cognitive processes can be better addressed in
  theory assessment of mechanisms.  
• Develop a proposal for a future large scale test
  of a memory enhancement component for prevention.
  

83
Implications of IC Project

• Advances in understanding the causes of drug
  abuse
• Advances in assessment of cognitive antecedents
  of
• drug abuse cognitive consequences of
  prevention
• Increase understanding of processes through
  which
• prevention programs operate
• Develop procedures that make intervention
  content
• more readily accessible in high-risk settings

84
Example of Compound Cue measure For each phrase
below, write the first word it makes you think of
 
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Project 2 TND-Networked Using Network Theory
to Tailor Project TND
Thomas W. Valente, PhD
86
Abstract

• Study designed to use network analysis theory to
  structure an existing, evidence based, substance
  abuse prevention program
• Motivation comes from prior studies that show
• Social networks are important influences on
  behavior
• Social networks have been used to tailor programs
  in the past TTURC study

87
The Effects of a Social Network Method for Group
Assignment Strategies on Peer Led Tobacco
Prevention Programs in Schools
Thomas W. Valente, PhD Beth R. Hoffman,
MPH Anamara Ritt-Olson, MA Kara Lichtman, MA C.
Anderson Johnson, PhD In press Am. J. of Public
Health Funded by NCI/NIDA, Transdisciplinary
Tobacco Use Research Center
88
Objectives

• Evaluate the feasibility of a network method for
  identifying leaders and creating workgroups for
  school-based tobacco prevention curriculum.
• Nested within a study of FLAVOR, a culturally
  tailored program, being compared to CHIPS! a
  standard social influences curriculum.
• Determine whether more effective than random
  groups and teacher defined ones.

89
Comparison of 3 Conditions
90
Study Design
91
Data
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  Who are the five BEST LEADERS in this class?
  Think about the five people in this class who
would make the best leaders for working on group
projects. Write up to 5 names on the lines below,
starting with the best leader on the first line.
After you write their name look at the list of
names on the roster that has been provided. Match
the name to the number and write the number in
the boxes. If you cant think of five names in
this class, then leave the extra lines blank. You
can name yourself if you want.  
Also asked who are your five best friends
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Group Assignments for One Network Condition Class
95
Regression Results on Post Program Appeal (Lower
Scores Better) (N1960 k87 Beta Coefficients)
96
Regression Results on Post Program Attitudes
(Lower Scores Better, Beta Coefficients)
97
Intention to Smoke
98
Classroom Level Analysis (Nk87 Beta
Coefficients)
99
Conclusions

• Network method was most effective at changing
  short term outcomes
• First network-based intervention
• Can use network information to improve existing
  programs in schools, organizations, communities,
  and other sites
• The approaches and algorithms can be improved
  (location science)
• Networks influence behavior

100
Advantages of Network Methods

• Capitalizes on existing interpersonal
  relationships
• Uses community input
• Establishes a learning organization /community
• Builds social capital
• Is Empowering

101
10 Methods Used to Identify Peer Opinion Leaders
102
TPRC Training Core and Developmental Grants

• Jennifer Unger, Ph.D.

103
Training Core

• Purpose
• To foster transdisciplinarity
• Training opportunities for students
• Mentorship
• Research experiences
• Offered at BA, MPH, Ph.D., and postdoctoral
  levels
• BA level Directed Research units
• MPH and Ph.D. level rotation plan for working
  with different faculty
• Training opportunities for faculty
• Seminars
• Developmental grants

104
Developmental Grant Program

• Purpose
• To assist investigators in integrating strategies
  and theories from multiple scientific disciplines
• To gain a more comprehensive understanding of the
  causes of drug abuse and its prevention among
  adolescents

105
Award Categories

• Established researchers
• transitioning to drug use research from another
  research area or seeking seed funding for new
  research ideas
• up to 20,000/year
• New investigators
• (Ph.D.-level) at the beginning of their research
  careers who have not yet been Principal
  Investigator on a major grant
• up to 15,000/year
• Graduate students
• dissertation research
• up to 5,000/year

106
What Were Looking For

• We are interested in projects that
• Are transdisciplinary
• Involve multiple levels of analysis
• Apply basic research to the prevention of drug
  abuse
• Letters of intent accepted once or twice annually

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