3. God in the Old Testament

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3. God in the Old Testament

• BIB566/THE566 Old Testament Theology

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3.1.2 The God of the Fathers EL

• 3.1 Names of God in the O.T.

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3.1.2 The God of the Fathers EL

• 1. The EL Names in the Patriarchal Narratives
• 1.1 El in names of persons and places
• We recognize it easily in such names as Beth-El
  (Gen 28.19, Peni-El (32.30), Ishama-El (16.11),
  Isra-El (32.28), and Bethu-El (24.15). We also
  know that this El element is sometimes left out
  of such names (cf. Jephtah-El Josh 19.14, 27
  and Jephtah, Judg 11.1). There are good reasons
  to believe that the patriarchal names Isaac and
  Jacob are abbreviated El names of this sort
  (originally Isaac-El and Jacob-El). One such El
  name, Jaqub-El, is attested in Babylonia about
  one hundred years before the time of Hammurabi,

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3.1.2 The God of the Fathers EL

• whose dates are ca. 1729-1686 BCE. It is, then,
  clear that the divine name El plays an important
  part in the patriarchal narratives." Mettinger,
  Ibid., 66

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El in Names of Places
Divine Name Place Text
El Elyon El Most High Salem Gen 14.18-22
El Roi El of Seeing Beer-Lahai Roi Gen 16.13
El Olam El the Everlasting Beer-Sheba Gen 21.33
El Elohe Yisrael El the God of Israel Shechem Gen 33.18-20
El Bethel El of Bethel Bethel Gen 31.13 35.7
El Shaddai El of the Mountain   Gen 17.1 28.3 35.11 43.14 48.3 49.25
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3.1.2 The God of the Fathers EL

• 2. El in the Canaanite Texts
• 2.1 The god called El was a different character
  from Baal. El was old and wise, a mild and
  merciful god. El was call both father of
  humankind and creator of all created beings.
  El is the one who gives a child to the childless
  king Keret. El is sometimes referred to as
  king, but if we wish to describe his
  peculiarities accurately, we can justifiably
  characterize him as the patriarch among the gods
  of Canaan. El emerges from the texts as an aged
  father figure with an air of mild and generous
  wisdom." Mettinger, Ibid., 67

7
Canaanite El
8
Canaanite Baal
9
Canaanite Baal
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3.1.2 The God of the Fathers EL

•  2.2 Canaanite El as origins for the El names of
  God
•  2.2.1 Gen 33.20 The altar at Shechem was to be
  called El is the God of Israel )e4l )elo4he
  yisra4)e3l
•  2.2.2 Gen 46.3 In the nocturnal revelation to
  Jacob in Beer-Sheba we are told, I am El, the
  God of your father. Here the word )e4l bears the
  definite article.
•  2.2.3 Gen 49.25 In Jacob's blessing to Joseph we
  find the words, by the El of your father.

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3.1.2 The God of the Fathers EL

• 3. El as Semitic marker of deity
• 3.1 la Gen 33.20 Jacob built an altar to
  El-Elohe-Israel.
•  3.1.1 These El names were originally
  pre-Israelite in their meaning. With the
  exception of El Shaddai, they generally appear in
  connection with particular Canaanite shrines and
  reflect ancient Semitic religion. When the
  Israelites came into Canaan, they took over these
  shrines, together with the religious traditions
  associated with them to the worship of Yahweh.
  Anderson, "God, Names of," IDB, I, 413a

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3.1.2 The God of the Fathers EL

•  3.1.2 Admittedly it is true that the word )e4l
  is not only used as )e4l the proper name of a
  deity, that is El with a capital E. The word is
  also the common Semitic word for deity. In the
  biblical tradition the word )e4l in the El names
  has gradually acquired this reduced content to
  Israelites in later times names such as El
  Elyon and El Olam meant God the Most High
  and God the Eternal. Mettinger, Ibid., 67

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3.1.2 The God of the Fathers EL

• 4. El-Elyon (God Most High) Gen 14.22
• 4.1 "The Hebrew word elyon is an adjective
  meaning "higher, upper," e.g., the "upper" pool
  (Isa. 73), the "upper" gate (II Kings 1535),
  and "highest," e.g., the "highest" of all the
  kings of the earth (Ps. 8928). When used in
  reference to God, the word can rightly be
  translated as "Most High." Since in reference to
  God elyon is never preceded by the article ha-
  ("the"), is must have been regarded as a proper
  noun, a name of God. Thus, it can be used as a
  divine name meaning "the Most High" (e.g., Deut.
  328 Isa. 1414 Ps. 93) or in parallelism with
  YHWH (e.g., Ps. 18 14 218 83 19), El (Num.
  24 16 Ps. 10711), and Shaddai (Ps. 911)."
  Encyclopedia Judaica

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3.1.2 The God of the Fathers EL

• 4.2 "Among the Canaanites, El and Elyon were
  originally distinct deities, the former attested
  by archaeological evidence from Ugarit in Western
  Syria, the latter by evidence from Phoenicia
  further south. Later, both terms were combined to
  designate a single god El Elyon. In the Tell
  el-Amarna Letters of the 15th14th centuries
  B.C.E., the Canaanites called El Elyon "the lord
  of the gods." According to Genesis 14 1820,
  Melchizedek, king of Salem, was "a priest of God
  Most High El Elyon," and he blessed Abraham by
  "God Most High, Creator of heaven and earth."
  Abraham accepted the title "Most High" as merely
  descriptive of his own God he swore by "YHWH,
  God Most High, Creator of

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3.1.2 The God of the Fathers EL

• heaven and earth." The combined form El Elyon
  occurs also in the Aramaic Sefire inscriptions of
  the eighth century B.C.E. (see Pope, El in the
  Ugaritic Texts (1955), 54ff.) and in later Greek
  inscriptions as Zeus Hypsistos. Whereas for the
  pagans the term referred to the god who was
  supreme over the other gods, in Israel it
  referred to the transcendent nature of the one
  true God. Encyclopedia Judaica

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3.1.2 The God of the Fathers EL

• 5. El-)olam (Everlasting God) Gen 21.33
  everlasting time, time whose boundaries are
  hidden from view. Ps 90.1-2 93.2 Isa 26.4
• 5.1 According to Genesis 2133, "Abraham planted
  a tamarisk at Beer-Sheba, and invoked there the
  name of YHWH, the everlasting God." The Hebrew
  for "the Everlasting God" is el olam, literally,
  "the God of an indefinitely long time." Perhaps
  it was the title of El as worshiped at the local
  shrine of Beer-Sheba (cf. El Bethel, "the El of
  Bethel," in Gen. 357). Then Abraham would have
  accepted this Canaanite term as descriptive of
  his true God. In any case, the epithet is logical

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3.1.2 The God of the Fathers EL

• in the context, which concerns a pact meant for
  all times. The term by which Abraham invoked YHWH
  at Beer-Sheba is apparently echoed in Isaiah
  4028, where YHWH is called "the Everlasting God
  elohei olam, the Creator of the ends of the
  earth" (cf. Jer. 1010, melekh olam, "the
  everlasting King" Isa. 264, zur olamim, "an
  everlasting Rock"). In Deuteronomy 3327, where
  "the ancient God" (elohei qedem) parallels "the
  everlasting arms" (zeroot olam), the text is
  uncertain. Only in the late passage of Daniel
  127 (probably translated from Aramaic) is the
  article used with olam "The man clothed in
  linen... swore by Him that liveth for ever
  (be-hei ha-olam)." Encyclopedia Judaica

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3.1.2 The God of the Fathers EL

• 6. El-Bethel Gen 31.13 35.7
• 7. El Roi Gen 16.13 God who sees me
• 7.1 The divine name El Roi occurs in Genesis
  1613. After Hagar was driven away by Sarai
  (Sarah) and fled into the western Negev, at a
  certain spring or well she had a vision of God,
  "and she called YHWH who spoke to her, 'You are
  El Roi.'" The meaning of the word "Roi" in this
  context is obscure. By itself it can be either a
  noun, "appearance" (I Sam. 1612), "spectacle,
  gazingstock" (Nah. 36), or a participle with a
  suffix of the first person singular, "seeing me,"
  i.e., who sees me (Job 78). Therefore, El Roi
  could mean either "the God of Vision" (who showed
  Himself to me) or "the God who sees me." The
  explanation of the divine name that is given in
  the second half of the same verse (Gen. 1613b)
  is equally obscure. As the Hebrew text now
  stands, it is usually rendered as "She meant,
  'Have I

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3.1.2 The God of the Fathers EL

• not gone on seeing after He saw me aharei
  roi?'" (JPS, 1962), or, "She meant, 'Did I not
  go on seeing here halom after He had seen me?'"
  (E.A. Speiser, Genesis (1964),117). In the
  following verse (1614) it is stated "Therefore
  the well was called Beer-Lahai-Roi." This name is
  explained in a footnote as "Apparently, 'The Well
  of the Living One Who sees me.'" (JPS). However,
  on the basis of the name of the well, E.A.
  Speiser (op. cit., p. 119) would emend the
  unvocalized Hebrew text of Genesis 16 13, hgm
  hlm ryty hry ry, to read hgm lhm ryty why,. "Did
  I really see God, yet remain alive?" The name of
  the well he would then take to mean, "Well of
  living sight." Since the well was in the region
  occupied by the Ishmaelites (and Hagar was the
  mother of Ishmael), the divine name, El Roi, may
  have been proper to the Ishmaelites rather than
  to the Israelites. Encyclopedia Judaica

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3.1.2 The God of the Fathers EL

• 8. El Berith Judg 9.46 (alternate of
  Baal-berith in Judg 8.33 9.4). Note the
  covenantal idea of Josh 24
• 8.1 The divine name El Berit ("God of the
  Covenant") occurs only in Judges 946, where
  mention is made of "the house i.e., temple of
  El Berit" at Shechem. This is certainly the same
  sanctuary that is called "the house i.e.,
  temple of Baal Berit" in 94. From the treasury
  of the temple of Baal-Berith the citizens of
  Shechem gave seventy silver shekels to Abimelech,
  the son of Jerubbaal (another name of Gideon) to
  aid him in his fight for the sole kingship of
  Shechem against the other sons of Jerubbaal
  (ibid.). A few years later, the rebellious
  citizens of Shechem were burned to death by
  Abimelech in the temple of El-Berith where they
  had taken refuge (94649)."

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3.1.3 EL SHADDAI

• 1. How old is this divine name?
• 1.1 Of the forty-eight occurrences of the name,
  quite a number appear in late literature, such as
  Ezekiel (twice) and Job (thirty-one times).
  Nevertheless, there is practically no
  contemporary scholar who claims that the name El
  Shaddai was a late invention of the exilic
  period. This is because there is broad agreement
  about the antiquity of some of the other biblical
  passages in which the name occurs for example,
  Jacobs patriarchal blessing (Gen 49.25), the
  Baalam text (Num 24.4, 16), and an ancient list
  of names (Num 1.5-16) in which Shaddai is the
  theophoric element in several

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3.1.3 EL SHADDAI

• personal names Shede-ur, Zuri-shaddai, and
  Ammi-shaddai (vv. 5, 6, 12). There is also a
  single extra-biblical attestation. An Egyptian
  figurine bears the legend Shaddai-ammi. Thus it
  contains the same elements as the previously
  mentioned biblical Ammi-shaddai. The figurine
  in question is datable to ca. 1300 BCE.
  Mettinger, In Search of God, 69

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3.1.3 EL SHADDAI

• 2. Old Testament References
• 2.1The divine name (El) Shaddai occurs 48 times
  in the Old Testament
• The Pentateuch 9 times. Three occurrences are
  in ancient tribal blessings, like the blessing of
  Jacob (Gen 49.25) and Balaams blessing (Numb
  24.4, 16) the other six occurrence are usually
  assigned to the so-called Priestly tradition in
  the Pentateuch Gen 17.1 28.3 35.11 43.14ff.,
  48.3 Exo 6.3.
• The book of Ruth 2 times (Ruth 1.20-21)
• The Prophets 4 times (Isa 13.6 Joel 1.15 Ezk
  1.24 10.5)

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3.1.3 EL SHADDAI

• The Psalter 2 times (Ps 68.14 15 91.1)
• Job 31 times
• 2.2 ". . . In addition to these attestations, the
  name Shaddai is component in the personal names
  Shede-ur, Zuri-shaddai, and Ammi-shaddai (Num
  1.5, 6, 12). This map of the distribution of
  name in the texts raises the question of its
  age. Mettinger, In Search of God, 69-70

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3.1.3 EL SHADDAI

• 3. Theories on Derivation and Significance
• 3.1 A common Greek rendering of El Shaddai is
  pantokrato4r, the ruler of all (16 times in LXX
  Job). It is clear, however, that this does not
  represent an actual attempt to translate the
  divine name. Rather, it is a conventional
  rendering and not an effort at a linguistic
  interpretation of El Shaddai. What we usually
  find in modern biblical translations of the name
  El Shaddai are reflections of this convention.
  As a result, the expression the Almighty in the
  biblical translations provides no key to the
  understanding of El Shaddai. Mettinger, In
  Search of God, 70

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3.1.3 EL SHADDAI

• 3.2 Early Judaism understood the contents of the
  name as he who is sufficient (derived from Heb.
  se day). This interpretation underlies the
  translation hikanos (he who is sufficient),
  which we find in certain Greek translations.
  Today, however, this is not held to be a
  convincing alternative. Mettinger, In Search of
  God, 70
• 3.3 An early interpretation associated El
  Shaddai with a Hebrew root signifying violence
  and destruction - sdd. This view is expressed
  already in the expression as destruction of a
  so4d, violence, destruction, which comes from
  Shaddai (cf. Isa 13.6 Joel 1.15). But this is
  probably a pun, not a linguistic-historical
  derivation. Mettinger, In Search of God, 70

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3.1.3 EL SHADDAI

• 3.4 The derivation that has won broadest
  acceptance does not associate the name with any
  Hebrew word, but with an Akkadian one found in
  Babylonian texts - sadu - the usual Akkadian
  word for mountain. On this theory the name El
  Shaddai would then signify something like El,
  the One of the mountain. Mettinger, In Search
  of God, 71
• 3.5 The Amorites dwelt in northern Mesopotamia,
  at the upper course of the Euphrates they were a
  nomadic people whom scholars have designated
  proto-Arameans, and they have been held to have
  been related to the tribal groups that eventually
  made up the people of Israel. These Amorites
  worshipped a god called Amurru. In some texts,
  it develops that this deity was characterized as
  be4l sade, the lord of the mountain.
  Mettinger, In Search of God, 71

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3.1.3 EL SHADDAI

• 4. Possible Associations
• 4.1 A number of scholars have felt that it was a
  notion of God as protector and refuge. Similar
  thoughts are presumably expressed when the god of
  Israel is characterized as the rock of his
  people (cf., e.g., Deut 32.4, 15, 18, 30, 31 2
  Sam 23.3 Ps 18.46). Another possibility is the
  notion that the name El Shaddai designates God as
  the One of the mount of the divine council (cf.
  Isa 14.13). In this event El Shaddai would be a
  name that characterized the God of the fathers as
  the chief of the heavenly council. The use of the
  name (El) Shaddai in close association with (El)
  Elyon, God the Most High (Num 24.16 and Ps
  91.1), provides a degree of support of this
  conjecture, as does the occurrence of the name in
  the Deir Alla inscriptions. Mettinger, In
  Search of God, 71

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3.1.3 EL SHADDAI

• 4.2 . . . El Shaddai frequently appears in
  contexts which deal with a divine blessing one
  has only to think of the blessings of Jacob and
  Baalam (Gen 49.25 Num 24.4, 16 respectively).
  Most occurrences in the patriarchal narratives
  appear in similar contexts. Thus El Shaddai
  reveals himself to Abraham and promises him
  innumerable offspring (Gen 17.1) in the name El
  Shaddai, Isaac blesses Jacob and communicates to
  him the assurance of numerous progeny and the
  blessing of Abraham (Gen 28.3-4). The same motif
  recurs in Gen 35.11 in the words, I am El
  Shaddai. Be fruitful and multiply. Mettinger,
  In Search of God, 72

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3.1.4 ELOHIM

• 1. General Usage
• 1.1 "The word eloha "God" and its plural, elohim,
  is apparently a lengthened form of El (cf.
  Aramaic elah, Arabic ilah). The singular eloha is
  of relatively rare occurrence in the Bible
  outside of Job, where it is found about forty
  times. It is very seldom used in reference to a
  pagan god and then only in a late period (Dan.
  11 37ff. II Chron. 3215). In all other cases
  it refers to the God of Israel (e.g., Deut.
  3215 Ps. 5022 139 19 Prov. 305 Job 34,
  23). The plural form elohim is used not only of
  pagan "gods" (e.g., Ex. 1212 18 11 20 3),
  but also of an individual pagan "god" (Judg.
  1124 II Kings 12ff.) and even of a "goddess"
  (I Kings 115)."

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3.1.4 ELOHIM

• 2. When Describing the God of Israel
• 2.1 "In reference to Israel's "God" it is used
  extremely oftenmore than 2,000 timesand often
  with the article, ha-elohim, "the true God."
  Occasionally, the plural form elohim, even when
  used of the God of Israel, is construed with a
  plural verb or adjective (e.g., Gen. 20 13
  357 Ex. 324, 8 II Sam. 723 Ps. 58 12),
  especially in the expression elohim hayyim, "the
  living God." In the vast majority of cases,
  however, the plural form is treated as if it were
  a noun in the singular. The odd fact that Hebrew
  uses a plural noun to designate the sole God of
  Israel has been explained in various ways. It is
  not to be understood as a remnant of the
  polytheism of Abraham's ancestors, or hardly as a
  "plural of majesty"if there is such a thing in
  Hebrew. Some scholars take it as a plural that
  expresses an abstract idea (e.g., zekunim, "old
  age" neurim, "time of youth"), so that Elohim
  would really mean "the Divinity."

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3.1.4 ELOHIM

• 2.2 "More likely, however, it came from Canaanite
  usage the early Israelites would have taken over
  elohim as a singular noun just as they made their
  own the rest of the Canaanite language. In the
  Tell-el-Amarna Letters Pharaoh is often addressed
  as "my gods ilaniya the sun-god." In the
  ancient Near East of the second half of the
  second millennium B.C.E. there was a certain
  trend toward quasi-monotheism, and any god could
  be given the attributes of any other god, so that
  an individual god could be addressed as elohai,
  "my gods" or adonai, "my lords." The early
  Israelites felt no inconsistency in referring to
  their sole God in these terms. The word elohim is
  employed also to describe someone or something as
  godlike, preternatural, or extraordinarily great,
  e.g., the ghost of Samuel (I Sam. 2813 cf. Isa.
  819 "spirits"), the house of David (Zech. 128),
  the mountain of Bashan (Ps. 6816), and Rachel's
  contest with her sister (Gen. 308).
  Encyclopedia Judaica

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3.1.4 ELOHIM

• 3. Cassutos Differentiation between Elohim and
  Yahweh
• 3.1 The designation, yhla was originally a
  common noun, an appellative, that was applied
  both to the One God of Israel and to the heathen
  gods (so, too, was the name la). Cassuto, The
  Documentary Hypothesis, 18
• 3.2 ...the name hwhy is a proper noun, the
  specific name of Israels God, the God whom the
  Israelites acknowledged as the Sovereign of the
  universe and as the Divinity who chose them as
  His people. Cassuto, The Documentary
  Hypothesis, 18

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3.1.4 ELOHIM

• 3.3 "It selected the name YHWH when the text
  reflects the Israelite concept of God, which is
  embodied in the portrayal of YHWH and finds
  expression in the attributes traditionally
  ascribed to Him by Israel, particularly in His
  ethical character it preferred the name Elohim
  when the passage implies the abstract idea of the
  Deity prevalent in the international circles of
  "wise men"- God conceived as the Creator of the
  physical universe, as the Ruler of nature, as the
  Source of life. The Tetragrammaton is used, when
  the expression is given to the direct, intuitive
  notion of God, which characterizes the faith of
  the multitude or the ardor of the prophetic
  spirit the name Elohim, when the concept of
  thinkers who meditate on the lofty problems
  connected with the existence of the world and
  humanity is to be conveyed. The name YHWH occurs
  when the context depicts the Divine attributes in
  relatively lucid and, as it were palpable terms,
  a clear picture being conveyed

35
3.1.4 ELOHIM

• Elohim, when the portrayal is more general,
  superficial and hazy, leaving an impression of
  obscurity. The Tetragrammaton is found when the
  Torah seeks to arouse in the soul of the reader
  or the listener the feeling of the sublimity of
  the Divine Presence in all its majesty and glory
  the name Elohim, when it wishes to mention God in
  an ordinary manner, or when the expression or
  thought may not, out of reverence, be associated
  directly with the Holiest Name. The YHWH is
  employed when God is presented to us in His
  personal character and in direct relationship to
  people or nature and Elohim, when the Deity is
  alluded to as a Transcendental Being who exists
  completely outside and above the physical
  universe. The Tetragrammaton appears when the
  reference is to the God of Israel

36
3.1.4 ELOHIM

• relative to His people or to their ancestors
  Elohim, when He is spoken of in relation to one
  who is not a member of the Chosen People. YHWH is
  mentioned when the name concerns Israel's
  tradition and Elohim, when the subject-matter
  appertains to the universal tradition. Cassuto,
  The Documentary Hypothesis, 31-32

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3.1.4 ELOHIM

• 4. Problems with the Name of God criterion for
  Source Critical Divisions
• 4.1 Can not be applied consistently i.e.,
  supposed E text of Gen 22.11 uses YHWH in Gen
  2-4 it is usually YHWH Elohim in J.
• 4.2 Editorial rationale is weak in spite of the
  Ex 6.2c-3 and 3.13-15.
• 4.3 Easy solution of name interchange, i.e.,
  "YHWH is the covenant name of God, which
  emphasizes his special relationship to Israel.
  Elohim speaks of God's universality as God of all
  earth. To put it simply, Elohim is what God is
  and YHWH is who he is." Garret, Rethinking
  Genesis, 19

38
3.1.4 ELOHIM

• 4.4 The idea that J thought the patriarchs knew
  YHWH, while E and P did not is not true. Note
  the problem of Gen 4.26 (J) Ex 3.13-15 (E) Ex
  6.2-8 (P).
• 4.5 Using the divine name as a source criterion
  is contrary to all ancient Near eastern
  analogies.

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3.1.5 hwhy YAHWEH

• 1. General
• 1.1 "Yahweh. The name of God the OT. When it
  stands alone, and with prefixed prepositions or
  the conjunction wa-, and, the name is always
  written with the four Hebrew letters yod, he,
  waw, he-, and is for that reason called the
  Tetragrammaton. In this form the name appears
  more than 6,000 times in the OT. (Variation in
  the Masoretic mss makes it difficult to establish
  the number of occurrences exactly.) Shorter forms
  of the divine name occur in personal names. At
  the beginning of names the form is ye6ho- or the
  contracted form yo- at the end of names,
  -ya4hu or -ya4h." Thompson, Henry O., Yahweh,
  ABD (6,828X)

40
3.1.5 hwhy YAHWEH

• 2. Pronunciation
• 2.1 "The pronunciation of yhwh as Yahweh is a
  scholarly guess. Hebrew biblical mss were
  principally consonantal in spelling until well
  the current era. The pronunciation of words was
  transmitted in a separate oral tradition. The
  Tetragrammaton was not pronounced at all, the
  word )a6dona4y, my Lord, being pronounced in
  its place )elo4hm, God, was substituted in
  cases of combination )a6dona4y yhwh (305 times
  e.g., Gen 15.2). (This sort of reading in MT is
  called a qere perpetuum.) Though the consonants
  remained, the original pronunciation was
  eventually lost. When the Jewish scholars (called
  Masoretes) added vowel signs to biblical mss some
  time before the 10th century AD, the
  Tetragrammaton was punctuated with the vowels of
  the word Adonai or Elohim to indicate that
  that the reader should read Lord or God
  instead of accidentally pronouncing the sacred
  name (TDOT, 5, 501-02)."

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3.1.5 hwhy YAHWEH

• 2.2 "The form Jehovah results from reading the
  consonants of the Tetragrammaton with the vowels
  of the surrogate word Adonai. The dissemination
  of this form is usually traced to Petrus
  Galatinus, confessor to Pope Leo X, who in 1518
  AD transliterated the four Hebrew letters with
  the Latin letters jhvh together with the vowels
  of Adonai, producing the artificial form
  Jehovah. (This confused usage may, however,
  have begun as early as 1100 AD note (KB, 369).
  While the hybrid form Jehovah has met much
  resistance, and is universally regarded as an
  ungrammatical aberration, it nonetheless passed
  from Latin into English and other European
  languages and has been the hallowed by usage in
  hymns and the ASV it is used only a few times in
  KJV and not at all in the RSV.

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3.1.5 hwhy YAHWEH

• 2.3 "The generally acknowledged vocalization
  Yahweh is a reconstruction that draws on
  several lines of evidence. The longer of the two
  reduced suffixing forms of the divine, ya4h and
  ya4hu, indicates that the name probably had the
  phonetic shape /yahw-/ with a final vowel. The
  vowel is supplied on the basis of the observation
  that the name final vowel /e4/ this inference is
  confirmed by the element yahw4 occurring in the
  names in the Amorite language (see TDOT 5512
  the relevance of the Amorite names is challenged
  by Knauf 1984 467). In the Aramaic letters from
  Elephantine in Egypt (ca. 404 BC ANET, 491-92),
  the divine name occurs in the spelling yhw,
  probably with the vocalization /yahu/ (TDOT
  5505). Instances of the divine name written in
  Greek letters, such as Iao (equivalent to
  Yaho), Iabe (known to the Samaritans, Theodoret
  4th century AD, and Epiphanius), Iaoue, Iaouai
  (Clement of Alexandria 3d century), and Iae
  also favor the form Yahweh (NWDB, 453).

43
3.1.5 hwhy YAHWEH

• 2.4 Mettinger also notes
• 2.4.1 ...the name which is above every name.
  (Phil 2.9) which is influenced by Lev 24.10-16
• 2.4.2 N.B. Pss 42-83 (the Elohist Psalms)
• 2.4.3 Some of the Dead Sea Scrolls use an archaic
  lettering for the Tetragrammaton

44
3.1.5 hwhy YAHWEH

• 3. Meaning
• 3.1 "The meaning of the name is unknown.
  Arguments favoring particular meaning have been
  for the most part grammatical. The name has long
  been thought to be a form of the verb ha4wa4y, an
  older form of the Hebrew verb -ha4ya4h, to be.
  The reconstructed from yahwe4h is parsed as
  either a third-person Qal imperfect of this verb
  or as the corresponding form of the causative
  stem. This analysis is encouraged by theological
  notions of God as one who is, or who exists, or
  who causes existence. Thus the explanation of
  Yahweh in Exod 3.14, I am who I am, is a folk
  etymology based on the verb (ROTT, 181-182). the
  analysis of the name as a causative falters on
  the grammatical point observed by Barr that the
  causative of this verb does not occur in Hebrew
  elsewhere (HDB, 335). However, the name could be
  a unique or singular use of the causative stem."

45
3.1.5 hwhy YAHWEH

• 3.2 Possible Meanings According to Mettinger
• 3.2.1 As a "vocative" ya and huwa (He) "He!"
  (Isa 43.10, 13 Deut 32.39)
• 3.2.2 Arabic hwy meaning "to fall" or "scatter"
  therefore the meaning "the one who sows seeds"

46
3.1.5 hwhy YAHWEH

• 4. Theological Significance
• 4.1 Exodus 6.2-3
• The Context of 6.2-9
• Functions as the greatest guarantee of the
  promise.
• 4.2 Exodus 3.13-15
• The Context of a "call narrative"
• Functions as an proof of the "call" and
  "commission"
• 4.3 Other Texts of Interest Deut 33.2-3 Judg
  5.4-5 (Ps 68.7-8, 17-18) Hab 3.3ff.

47
3.1.5 hwhy YAHWEH

• 4.4 Egyptian Sources (Amenophis III 1400BCE
  Ramses II 1250BCE)
• Shasu bedouins
• Yhw in the land of the Shasu bedouins
• Seir in the land of the Shasu bedouins
• 4.5 Relations to the verb "to be" in Exodus
  3.13-14.
• 4.6 N.B. Hos 1.9
• 4.7 G-Stem (Qal) - He is! I am
• 4.8 H-Stem (Hiphil) "Creator"
• 4.9 He is here and now helping God's active
  presence to help.

48
3.2 Metaphors about God in the Old Testament
49
3.2.1 The LORD is KING

• 1. Introduction
• 1.1 A Root Metaphor "The LORD as King is a "root
  metaphor." It generates such metaphors as the
  notion of the temple as God's royal dwelling -
  God's palace the concept that God is an
  enthroned ruler of the Universe and presides over
  a heavenly court of divine armies the there will
  be a great battle, the "Day of LORD."
• 2. Statistics
• 2.1 "The OT speaks of the Lord as King a total of
  85 times (ignoring personal names in which this
  concept is also expressed). These are contexts in
  which such words as king,' throne,' reign,'
  and the like are used of God." Mettinger, In
  Search of God, 116

50
3.2.1 The LORD is KING

• 2.2 Tabulations
• "King" l,m, used of God 43 times.
• Pent 2X Num 23.21 Deut 33.5
• Sam 1X 1 Sam 12.12
• Prophets 18X Isa 6.5 33.17, 22 41.21 43.15
  44.6 Jer 8.19 10.7, 10 6.18 48.15 51.57
  Micah 2.13 Zeph 3.15 Zech 14.9, 16, 17 Mal
  1.14
• Psalter 21X 5.23 10.16 24.7, 8, 9, 10
  29.10 44.45 47.2, 6, 73, 7, 8 48.23
  68.2425 74.12 84.34 89.1819 95.3 98.6
  99.4 145.1 149.2.
• Daniel 1X Dan 4.37Aram v34

51
3.2.1 The LORD is KING

• "to be king" lm' is used 13 times of God.
• Pent 1X Exod 15.18
• Sam 1X 1 Sam 8.7
• Prophets 6X Isa 24.23 52.7 Eze 20.33 Micah
  4.7
• Psalter 6X 47.89 93.1 96.10 97.1 99.1
  146.10
• Chronicles 1X 1 Chr 16.31 (Ps 96.10)

52
3.2.1 The LORD is KING

• Terms signifying "kingdom" occur 10 times in
  connection with God.
• tWkl.m Ps 103.19 145.11, 12, 13(X2) Dan 4.3
  Aram 3.33 4.34Aram 4.31
• hk'Wlm. Obad 21 Ps 22.2829
• 1 Chr 29.11
• The Lord's sitting on his throne is mentioned 11
  times. not including the expression "he who
  thrones upon the cherubim," 1 Kgs 22.19 Isa
  6.1 66.1 Jer 3.17 17.12 Eze 1.26 Pss 9.4,
  75, 8 47.89 89.1415 93.2 103.19.

53
3.2.1 The LORD is KING

• "to rule, govern" lvm' 8X Judg 8.23 Isa
  63.19 Pss 22.2829 59.1314 66.7 89.910
  1 Chr 29.12 2 Chr 20.6.
• 2.3 "The root metaphor of the Lord as King
  utilizes two divine designation "the King," and
  "YHWH Sabaoth." The first gives us a glimpse of
  YHWH as the warring deity and the second of YHWH
  as the enthroned reigning deity." N.B. Isaiah
  6.1-5

54
3.2.1 The LORD is KING

• 3. The LORD as KING The Victorious Warrior
• 3.1 YHWH is King not Baal!
• Problem of identifying YHWH with Baal
• Hos 2.16 2.18 On that day, says the LORD, you
  will call me, My husband, and no longer will
  you call me, My Baal.
• The large stone jar with "I bless you by Yahweh
  our guardian Yahweh of Samaria and by his
  Asherah." From Kuntillet Ajrud. Dever, Recent
  Archaeological Discoveries and Biblical Research,
  140-149 N.B. ABD Picture!

55
3.2.1 The LORD is KING

• 3.1.1 Elimination of Baal in worship
  "...characterized by Israel's reaction to the
  sexual athleticism and the dying and rising
  features of the Canaanite deities." Mettinger,
  In Search of God, 94
• 3.1.2 Integration
• 3.1.3 The Battle
• Ps 74.12-14 Yet God my King from of old,
  working salvation in the midst of the earth. You
  divided the sea y" by your might You broke
  the heads of the dragons on the waters. You
  crushed the heads of Leviathan.

56
3.2.1 The LORD is KING

• Isa 27.1 In that day the LORD with his hard and
  great and strong sword will punish Leviathan the
  fleeing serpent, Leviathan the twisting serpent,
  and he will slay the dragon that is in the sea.
• 3.2 The LORD as King The Creation Battle
• Ps 74.15-17 You cut openings for springs and
  torrents and you dried up ever-flowing streams.
  Yours is the day, yours also the night you
  establish the luminaries and the sun. You have
  fixed all the bounds of the earth you made
  summer and winter. Note the connection of the
  chaos battle and the description of creation.

57
3.2.1 The LORD is KING

• Ps 89.9-12 v5-18 God as King gt v1819 should be
  rendered "The Holy One of Israel, he is our
  king" You rule the raging of the sea when its
  waves rise, you still them. You crushed Rahab
  like a carcass you scattered your enemies with
  your mighty arm. The heavens are yours, the earth
  also is yours the world and all that is in it -
  you have founded them. The north and the south -
  you created them Tabor and Hermon joyously
  praise you name.
• Rebuke gt rg"
• Ps 104.7 "At your rebuke they fled at the sound
  of your thunder they took to flight." Isa 17.3

58
3.2.1 The LORD is KING

• "The concept of the Lord as King is associated
  with the idea of the chaos battle. We have just
  seen how the chaos battle also serves as a motif
  of creation. In this context, the creation bears
  witness of God's victory over chaos. This
  establishes a connection between the Lord as King
  and his creation of the world, and this
  connection is attested in other biblical texts
  (e.g., Jer 10.7, 12-16) and in other Jewish
  literature." Mettinger, In Search of God, 100

59
3.2.1 The LORD is KING

• 3.3 The LORD as King The Temple and the Zion
  Battle
• 3.3.1 Ps 24 How the King of Glory enters his
  Temple
• 24.7-10 God's royal progression to his temple.
• 24.1-2 A glimpse of the Creator's battle with
  the powers of chaos
• 3.3.2 1 Kgs 8.13 The temple as God's royal
  palace "I have built a royal house for you, an
  established place for your throne forever."
• The temple in Jerusalem often called lk'yhe Ps
  27.4 Isa 6.1.

60
3.2.1 The LORD is KING

• 3.3.3 Note the Zion Theology in Ps 46 48 76
• The Lord is the great King (Ps 48.2)
• God has chosen Jerusalem (Pss 78.68-69) 132.13)
  the temple on Zion is his royal palace, and God
  is always present in it.
• The royal presence of the god on Zion has a
  series of consequences
• God's blessing emanates from Zion (Pss 128.5
  134.3) the temple river is a manifestation of
  this (Ps 46.4 Eze 47.1-12).
• In a virtual repetition of the chaos battle, the
  Lord intervenes against the enemies who are
  threatening Zion. God's presence makes Zion
  inviolable God is the guarantor of Zion's
  security (Ps 46.5).

61
3.2.1 The LORD is KING

• God's presence entails special demands on the
  inhabitants of Zion, as sinners cannot endure the
  presence of God (Pss 15 24.3-6 Isa 33.13-16).
• 3.3.4 Three Key texts
• Isa 17.12-14 gt The chaos battle here is
  transformed into God's battle with the enemy who
  attack Zion.
• Ps 46 gt God brings peace by being the battling
  king and intervening against every new
  manifestation of the forces of chaos.
• Ps 76

62
3.2.1 The LORD is KING

• 3.3.5 "So far we have witnessed the importance of
  the temple to the metaphor of the Lord as King.
  Its architecture and cult symbols (esp. the
  cherubim throne) imply that the structure in
  question is the palace of he great King. In the
  biblical ideological complex in which the Lord as
  King is the very center, there are three
  components chaos battle, kingship, and temple.
  It is logical to assume that this root metaphor
  was especially cultivated in the milieu of the
  temple, which would help to explain its
  occurrence in the Psalter and related
  literature." Mettinger, In Search of God, 104

63
3.2.1 The LORD is KING

• 3.4 The LORD as King The Exodus Battle
• 3.4.1 Passages describing the miracle of the
  exodus as a re-enactment of God's battle with the
  power of chaos
• Ps 114.1-5
• Ps 77.13-10
• Exod 15.1-18
• Isa 51.9-10
• 3.4.2 "We have now seen how the motif of the
  chaos battle is used in the OT in a variety of
  ways to show how God created this world in an
  act of royal sovereignty and how God acts in new
  ways on the historical plane. In this connection
  we find the historicization' of the motif in
  order to describe God's saving action in the
  exodus. Here, too, we find God's defense of Zion
  against the attacking enemy peoples. The original
  mythological motif was historicized' in Israel.

64
3.2.1 The LORD is KING

• 3.5 The LORD as King The Battle on the Day of
  the LORD
• 3.5.1 The Day of Yahweh in General
• 3.5.1.1 "'The Day of the Lord' (the Day of
  Yahweh') is a central feature of the prophets'
  message to their contemporaries. This phrase and
  such closely related expressions as the day of
  the anger of Yahweh,' or Yahweh has a day,'
  occur over two dozen times in the prophetic books
  (most frequently in Isaiah, Joel, and Zephaniah),
  and once in Lamentations (2.22). Similar terms,
  particularly that day,' the day of,' and the
  day when,' appear nearly 200 times in the
  prophets, occasionally in Lamentations, and twice
  in Psalms (Pss 110.5 137.7). The terms often are
  used interchangeably with the fuller expressions
  or in contexts that refer

65
3.2.1 The LORD is KING

• specifically to one or the other of them, e.g.,
  Isa 2.12-22 (see vv 12, 17, 20) Jer 46.10 Ezk
  7.5-27 (see vv 7, 10, 12, 19) and Ezk 30.2-3."
  Heirs, "Day of the Lord," ABD
• 3.5.1.2 hwhy Ay "An expression found in the
  following OT passages Isa 13.6, 9 Ezk 13.5
  Joel 1.15 2.1, 11 3.4 4.14 Amos 5.18-20 (3x)
  Obad 15 Zeph 1.7, 14 Mal 3.23. There occur also
  the related expressions hwhyl wy a day of
  Yahweh' (Isa 2.12 Ezk 30.3 Zech 14.1) hmqn wy
  a day of retribution' (Jer 46.10) hwhyl qn wy
  Yahweh's day of retribution' (Isa 34.8) hwhy
  trb wy the day of Yahweh's wrath' (Ezk 7.19
  Zeph 1.18) hwhy _at_a wy the day of Yahweh's
  anger' (Zeph 2.3 cf. Lam 2.22) and hwhy xbz wy
  the day of Yahweh's feast' (Zeph 1.8). There is
  also the phrase, My Lord Yahweh of hosts has a
  day of tumult and din and confusion' (Isa 22.5)."
  Cathcart, "Day of Yahweh," ABD

66
3.2.1 The LORD is KING

• 3.5.1.3 Mettinger's "More Important OT Day of
  the LORD' Texts
• "In the NT, the expression the Day of the Lord'
  refers to the day Jesus arose from the dead -
  Sunday. Alternatively, it sometimes refers to the
  day of the return of Christ. In the OT, the
  phrase often has eschatological connotations.
  There it has to do with the day of God's final
  intervention in world history, the day when he
  will judge the peoples. The day of the Lord' and
  related expressions occur virtually only in the
  prophetic literature." Mettinger, In Search of
  God, 117
• "...the more important of the Day of the Lord'
  texts include Isa 2.6-22 13.1-22 22.1-14
  34.1-8 Jer 46.1-12 Ezk 7.1-27 Joel 1.1-20
  2.1-17 2.28-32 3.1-4 3.1-21 4.1-21 Amos
  5.18-20 obad 15-21 Zeph 1.2-18 3.9-20 Zech
  14.1-21. In addition to these texts, the

67
3.2.1 The LORD is KING

• following should be considered. They do not
  contain the technical terms of the Day of the
  Lord' texts, but are nevertheless related Isa
  24-27 Jer 4.23-31 50-51 Ezk 38-39."
  Mettinger, In Search of God, 117
• 3.5.1.4 Hoffmann's Two Principles Hoffmann,
  "The Day of the Lord as a Concept and a Term in
  the Prophetic Literature," ZAW 93, pp. 37-50
• The investigation should start with Amos 5.18-20.
• We must not draw conclusions about an earlier
  text from a later one.
• 3.5.2 Major Interpretations
• 3.5.2.1 von Rad von Rad, "The Origin of the
  Concept of the Day of the Yahweh," JSS, 4, pp.
  97-108 Old Testament Theology, Vol II, pp.
  119-125 Holy War in Ancient Israel

68
3.2.1 The LORD is KING

• "There is in fact something peculiar about the
  expectation of of the Day of Jahweh, for wherever
  it occurs in prophecy, the statements culminate
  in an allusion to Jahweh's coming in person."
  von Rad, OTT, II, 119
• "The first result of this survey is to show that
  the prophets expect the day of Jahweh to bring
  war in its train.... In itself, the almost
  stereotyped connexion of the day of Jahweh with
  intervention in war reminds one of the holy wars
  and all the phenomena which traditionally
  accompanied them.... A particularly important
  part is played by the terror caused by God
  himself, a panic confusion and demoralization of
  the enemy, whose effect was to paralyze their
  confidence in their fighting powers and so lead
  them to compass their own destruction." von Rad,
  Ibid., 123-124

69
3.2.1 The LORD is KING

• "The concept connected with the Day of Jahweh are
  therefore in no way eschatological per se, but
  were familiar to the prophets in all their
  details from the old Jahwistic tradition. The
  prophets, however, also believed that Jahweh's
  final uprising against his foe would take the
  same form as it had done in the days of old. It
  is beyond question that the prophetic vision of
  the concept of Jahweh's intervention in war
  became greatly intensified for the war was now
  to affect all nations, even the fixed orders of
  creation, and even Israel herself. The event has
  been expanded into a phenomenon of cosmic
  significance. Thus, under the influence of this
  traditional element the prophetic concept of the
  eschaton was also to some extent systematized,
  that is to say, predictions connected with the
  expectation of the Day of Jahweh which began from
  different traditions were to some extent
  blended." von Rad, Ibid., 124

70
3.2.1 The LORD is KING

• "...von Rad maintains in his theology of the OT
  that the Day of the Lord' implied a renewal of
  that intervention which the Lord once undertook
  in connection with the holy war' which took
  place after the exodus from Egypt and in
  conjunction with the conquest of Canaan. Of
  course, we know that the prophets sometimes
  looked to the past when they spoke of that which
  was to come. Thus, for example, it is possible to
  interpret Isa 9.4 in the light of Judges 7, or
  Isa 28.21 on the basis of 2 Sam 5.20. Moreover,
  it is clear that the description of the holy
  wars' of the past contain a number of miraculous
  details (e.g., Ex 14.20 Josh 10.11 1 Sam
  7.10)." Mettinger, In Search of God, 108

71
3.2.1 The LORD is KING

• "He is convinced that the Day of Yahweh
  encompasses a pure event of war, the rise of
  Yahweh against his enemies, his battle and his
  victory' (von Rad 1959 103). He pays particular
  attention to Isaiah 13 and 34, Ezekiel 7, and
  Joel 2, but criticizes those scholars who take
  Amos 5.18 as the starting point for in his view
  this text is not sufficiently unequivocal to be
  used as a suitable starting point for the
  examination (1959 98)." Cathcart, Ibid., 84
• 2.5.2.2 Mowinckel Mowinckel, He that Cometh
• "Inspired by Gressmann's work, S. Mowinckel
  proposed in 1917 that the Israelite New Year
  Festival was the enthronement festival of Yahweh.
  However, he differed from Gressmann, and from
  others before him, by rejecting the existence of
  a preprophetic

72
3.2.1 The LORD is KING

• eschatology. For him the Day of Yahweh
  originally means the day of Yahweh's
  manifestation in the cult at the New year
  Festival. Eschatology and the eschatological
  significance of the Day of Yahweh have their
  ultimate source in the autumn festival, but
  strictly they belong to later prophecy."
  Cathcart, Ibid., 84
• 2.5.2.3 John Gray Gray, "The Day of Yahweh in
  Cultic Experience and Eschatological Prospect,"
  SEA, 39, pp.5-37 The Biblical Doctrine of the
  Reign of God
• "...J. Gray, has argued effectively that the Day
  of Yahweh signified essentially the moment of
  the epiphany as King, which was the highlight of
  the autumn festival'.... Utilizing evidence
  gathered from Canaanite sources, and esp. the
  Baal myth from Ugarit, Gray

73
3.2.1 The LORD is KING

• stresses the importance of mispat, i.e., the
  imposition of the effective rule of Yahweh as
  king, the main theme of the liturgy of the autumn
  festival with its ultimate origins in the
  Canaanite festival at the same seasonal crisis'.
  Furthermore, Gray argues that Yahweh's conflict
  with the enemies of Israel, the
  Volkerkampf-mythus, is the historification in
  Israel of the cosmic conflict to sustain the
  effective Kingship of Yahweh in the liturgy of
  the autumn festival." Cathcart, Ibid., 85
• Mettinger follows a similar line when he
  emphasizes that, "It is a simple fact that
  certain of the texts that speak of the Day of
  the Lord' or of the Day' also expressly speak of
  the Lord as King. Here I content myself with
  brief reference to Ob 15-21 Micah 4.6-8 Zeph
  3.11-15 and Zech 14.9, 16." Mettinger, In
  Search of God, 109

74
3.2.1 The LORD is KING

• 4. The LORD of Hosts The Regnant God
• 4.1 The Contexts of twabc hwhy
• 4.1.1 "There are 284 occurrence of the name of
  these, no fewer than 251 (i.e., 88) are in the
  prophetic books. The 82 occurrences in the Book
  of Jeremiah represent a problem.... However, one
  should note the frequency of the term in Isaiah
  1-39 (56 times), Haggai (14 times), Zechariah (53
  times), and Malachi (24 times). These prophets
  have one notable feature in common they
  represent a tradition closely associated with the
  Jerusalem temple." Mettinger, In Search of God,
  125

75
3.2.1 The LORD is KING

• 4.1.2 "...the first attestations of the name
  occur in 1 Samuel (1.3, 11 4.4), where it
  appears in the context of ancient traditions
  associated with the Shiloh of he period of the
  judges. Note also that Shiloh contained a
  sanctuary, which was in fact the only sanctuary
  prior to the erection of Solomon's temple that
  was designated by the word hekal, temple (1 Sam
  1.9 3.3). Additionally, in the early materials
  the ark of the covenant is especially connected
  with the Sabaoth name (1 Sam 4.4 2 Sam 6.2), and
  it soon took up its place in the temple of
  Solomon (1 Kgs 8.6)." Mettinger, In Search of
  God, 125-6

76
3.2.1 The LORD is KING

• 4.1.3 In the Psalter 15X 24.10 46.7, 118,
  12 48.89 59.56 69.67 80.4, 7, 14,
  195, 8, 15, 20 84.1, 3, 8, 122, 4, 9, 13
  and 89.89.
• 4.2 Iconographic Context
• 4.2.1 The Sabaoth name seems to be connected with
  the Temple and especially the Cherubim Throne.
• 1 Sam 4.4 2 Sam 6.2 Isa 37.16 Ps 80.4, 7, 14,
  19.
• "The Sabaoth name was connected with Jerusalem
  and Zion. It was sometimes complemented by the
  cherubim formula,' so that the combined divine
  name YHWH Sabaoth, who is enthroned above the
  cherubim.' Therefore, we may conclude that the
  Sabaoth name was at home

77
3.2.1 The LORD is KING

• in the milieu of the temple. After all, it was
  in the temple that the two cherubim were placed
  which formed the throne of YHWH Sabaoth. It
  accordingly seems likely that the Sabaoth name
  was the designation used by the temple priests
  for God." Mettinger, In Search of God, 129-30
• 4.2.2 The Temple Meeting Place of Heaven and
  Earth.
• Ps 11.4 "The Lord is in his holy temple, the
  Lord's throne is in heaven."

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82
3.1 Names of God in the O.T.
83
3.1.0.1 The Significance of Names in the Biblical
World

• 1. Name and Reality Gen 2.19 Enuma Elish and
  the before of things named.
• 2. Name and Personality 1 Sam 25.25 (Nabal) Gen
  27.36 (Jacob) I know you by name (Ex 33.17)
  Ps 30.27 20.1.
• 3. Name and Presence Ex 20.24, Deut 4.7 (Where
  God's name is proclaim, God is said to be
  present.)
• 4. Pronouncing Names as a Legal Act Psa
  49.1112 Isa 4.1 Jer 15.16 I Kgs 8.43 Amos
  9.12

84
3.1.0.2 Exodus 6.2-3 3.14-15

• A I am Yahweh.
• B And I made myself known to Abraham, to Isaac,
  and to Jacob as El Shaddai.
• A' And my name is Yahweh.
• B' Did I not make myself known to them?
• "I am the God of your fathers, God of Abraham,
  God of Isaac, and the God of Jacob."

85
Preliminary Observation

• 1. In the patriarchal narratives a number of
  names of persons and places are mentioned that
  have long attracted scholarly interest Abram,
  Sarai, Jacob, Laban, Serug, Nahor, and Terah . .
  . . Mettinger, In Search of God, 52
• 2. ...the matter of the ethnic origins of the
  patriarchs. There is a well-established tradition
  that associates the patriarchs with the Arameans
  and that also manifests itself in the texts about
  Jacob, since he is said to be related to the
  Arameans through his mother, Rebecca. Rebecca was
  the daughter of the Aramean Bethuel and the
  sister of Laban, likewise referred to as Aramean
  (cf. Gen 25.20 28.5 31.20, 24). A text from the
  D-literature records that a wandering Aramean
  was my father and he went down into Egypt (Deut
  26.5). Mettinger, Ibid., 53

86
Preliminary Observation

• 3. Although Jerusalem and Zion played a major
  role in the cult during the monarchy there is no
  evidence of either in these pre-monarchical
  period texts. There is also no major evidence in
  this literature that points to the later conflict
  with the worship of the Canaanite Baal and
  depicted in the monar