Chapter One:Speaking in Public

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Chapter OneSpeaking in Public

• Conversation vs. Public Speaking
• Controlling Nervousness
• Speech Model

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Conversation vs. Public Speaking
BOTH
PUBLIC SPEAKING

• Thoughts organized logically
• Content delivery tailored to audience
• Delivered for maximum impact

• Speech more highly organized
• Language more formal
• Different delivery

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Controlling Nervousness

• Ask questions in classes - speaking skills
• Think positively confident self-talk
• Rehearse until automatic eye contact
• Visualize see positive audience response
• Dont expect perfection just do your best

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Transactional Speech Model

• Speaker (Enc/Dec)
• Receiver (Enc/Dec)
• Message
• Channel
• Feedback
• Situation
• Interference

I
R
S
(M)
Channel
F
S
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Ch.2 Ethics

• Define ethics
• -branch of philosophy studying right wrong
• Public speakers need strong ethics
• -public speaking is a form of power
• Guidelines for speechmaking listening
• Plagiarism

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Ethics of Speaking

• Have ethical speech goal
• Be fully prepared
• Be honest
• Avoid abusive language
• Use ethics ALL the time
• (not just when convenient)

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Ethics of Listening

• Be respectful of all in the room
• Avoid prejudging speakers
• Free and open expression of ideas

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Plagiarism

• Defined Presenting anothers ideas or words as
  your own.
• 3 Types
• Global-presenting another persons entire
  speech as your own
• Hearing vs. Listening
• Patchwork-patching together the parts of your
  speech by copying several sources
• Incremental-failing to give credit for any
  quotes/paraphrases borrowed (not citing)

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Ch. 3 Listening

• Hearing vs. Listening
• Importance for Speechmaking
• 4 Types of Listening
• 4 Causes of Poor Listening
• Improving Listening

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Differences

• Hearing physical (sound waves)
• Listening mental (attending making sense

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Listening Importance

• Most of us listen poorly
• Listening is needed
• on the job
• at school
• in all aspects of life
• Listening improves speaking skills

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4 Types of Listening

• Appreciative
• (to enjoy- music, comedy, etc.)
• Empathic
• (for emotional support)
• Comprehensive
• (to understand)
• Critical
• (to evaluate-reasoning, evidence, facts)

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4 Causes of Poor Listening

• Not concentrating
• (gap time)
• Listening too hard
• (for too much detail)
• Jumping to conclusions
• (assuming w/o hearing entire message)
• Focusing on delivery/appearance
• (judging the person not the message)

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7 Ways to Improve Listening

1. Take it seriously
2. Listen actively
3. Resist distractions
4. Avoid judging looks or mannerisms
5. Suspend judgments until after over
6. Focus on ideas, evidence, techniques to use
7. Take notes-main ideas support

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Ch. 8 The Body of the Speech
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Four Introduction Goals

• Attention getter
• Hook - relate to audience.Why listen?
• Clear Thesis Statement
• Preview

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Ch. 10 Conclusions

• Restate thesis and main points
• Tie back to Introduction
• Close it strongly

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Ch. 4 Selecting a Topic and Purpose

• 4 Ways to Brainstorm
• General vs. Specific Purpose Statements
• Specific Purpose vs. Central Idea
• Writing Purpose Statements Central Ideas

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Choosing a Topic

• Consider speech directions choose ASAP!
• Brainstorming - Listing what comes to mind
  w/o judgment, then narrowing
• -Inventory your skills interests, experiences
• -Cluster possible topics into categories
• -Browse through materials (reference room)
• -Use search engines on computer

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General vs. Specific Purpose

• GeneralTo inform (teach)
• Specific To inform my audience of three types of
  solar heating
• GeneralTo persuade (advocate)
• SpecificTo persuade my audience that solar
  heating is better than fossil fuel heating
  systems
• To persuade my audience to use solar heating in
  their homes

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Central Idea

• Clarifies specific purpose
• Concise statement sums up what you expect to say
• A thesis with subject main points
• (reveals more than the specific purpose)
• Usually written late in preparation process
• Use
• Full sentence
• No Questions
• No figurative language
• Not vague/too general

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Ch. 5 Audience Analysis

• Audience Centered
• Egocentric audiences
• Demographic traits
• Situational traits
• Audience analysis of class
• Audience adaptation

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Be Audience Centered

• Primary purpose to get desired response
• Ask To whom am I speaking?
• What do I want them to know?
• How can I write present this for that aim?
• Emphasize common values, goals, experiences

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Appeal to Egocentric Tendency

• They listen selectively to what affects them, so
  use psychology on them!
• Tell them how it affects in several ways
• Make them want to listen
• - vivid examples, clear language, transitions,
  etc.
• Relate it to what they already know/believe

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Audience Demographics

• Use ethically-avoid stereotyping!
• Combine with situational analysis
• Adapt to traits which can be counted
• age racial, ethnic cultural backgrounds
• gender sexual orientation
• education religious views, group
  memberships
• job intelligence
• residence student issues, etc.
• economics

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Ch. 6 Gathering Materials
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Ch. 7 Supporting Ideas
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Ch. 14 Informative Speaking

• Importance
• Types of Informative Speeches
• Organization
• Criteria
• 5 Guidelines or Tips

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Importance

• You will need to clearly give information the
  rest of your life!
• Ability to convey knowledge effectively will help
  you in a wide range of situations
• At work
• In personal and social relationships
• When doing any business

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Types of Informative Speeches

• Objects anything visible, tangible and stable
  in form (The Great Pyramid of Egypt)
• Processes a series of actions leading to a
  result (How to Study for a Test, etc.)
• Events anything which happens or is regarded as
  happening (The Holocaust)
• Concepts-Beliefs, theories, ideas, principles
  (Gravity, Buddhism, etc.)

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Organizing Informative Speeches

• Objects Chronological (the history of a place or
  person), spatial (Grand Canyon), or topical
  (Features of Digital Cameras)
• Processes Usually Chronological (How the Grand
  Canyon was Formed) and Topical (Methods Used by
  Stage Magicians)
• Events Chronological ( The History of the
  Womens Movement), Causal (The Sinking of the
  Titanic), Topical (Basic Pilates Exercises)

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Criteria for Informative Speaking

• 3 criteria for effective informative speaking
• Be accurate
• Be clear
• Make it meaningful interesting to the audience

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Five Guidelines

• Dont over or underestimate audience knowledge
• Relate it directly to your audience-work at it!
• Avoid being too technical---its a general
  audience
• Avoid abstractions
• Use specific details
• Use colorful, vivid descriptions
• Use familiar comparisons to draw in your audience
• Use contrast in concrete terms to give
  perspective
• Personalize ideas!
• Use personal illustrations
• Dramatize ideas in human terms when possible
• Use examples (real or hypothetical) that
  personalize ideas

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Ch. 11 Using Language

• Important
• Denotation vs. Connotation
• Accurate
• Clear
• Vivid
• Appropriate
• Inclusive

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Language is important

• Gives meaning to events
• creates our reality

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Not neutral

• - determines many reactions
• Closely linked to thinking
• Right word right idea
• Like tools
• right word for right job

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Denotation vs. Connotation

• Denotationprecise, literal, objective
• Dictionary definition
• The same for all persons
• Connotationvariable, figurative, subjective
• Suggestion, implication
• Can be different for each person

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Use Language Accurately

• Shades of meaning matter
• Dont use if not sure of meaning look it up!
• Develop a plan to improve vocabulary
• Will pay off big time in the future

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Use Language Clearly

• Meaning must be instantly clear to listeners
• Use familiar words- esp. if technical topic
• Use concrete words
• Eliminate clutter (lean and lively)

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Use Vivid Language

• Use imagery (create a mental picture w/ words)
• Concrete, sensory words (pull listeners in)
• Simile (compare unlike things using like or as)
• Her voice was as soft as a gentle breeze.
• Metaphor (compare unlike things w/o like or as)
• Her voice was a gentle breeze.
• Use rhythm arranging words for interesting
  sounds
• Parallelism - similar arrangement of
  words/phrases/ sentences
• Repetition - same words/phrases at begin. or end
  of next sentence
• Alliteration - same begin.consonant sound in
  close or next word
• Antithesis contrasting ideas (usually parallel
  structure)

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Use Language Appropriately

• For occasion adjust to formality and etiquette
• For audience - avoid possible offensive or
  confusing language
• Profanity/off-color language ( not suitable in a
  formal setting)
• Technical jargon (not suitable for a general
  audience)
• Name calling or any abusive language
• For topic Choose language by type of speech
• informative speech straightforward,
  descriptive language
• - Commemoration special devices (metaphor,
  alliteration, antithesis)
• - Persuasion factual but also emotional
  appeals
• For speaker Be yourself at your best, not your
  worst
• Not too casual and never offensive

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Use Inclusive Language

• Respect ALL groups
• Do not stereotype, demean or patronize
• Be ethical, accurate, and audience-centered
• For inclusive language AVOID
• Identifying jobs and social roles by gender
• The generic he or man (use plurals instead)
• Using names that groups use only for themselves
• Identifying personal traits unrelated to the
  topic

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Ch. 12 Delivery

• Importance of good delivery
• Characteristics of good delivery
• Four methods of delivery
• Eight aspects of voice
• Four aspects of movement
• Practicing delivery
• Question/Answer sessions

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Importance of Good Delivery

• Good delivery makes or breaks a speech!
• Using nonverbal communication (voice and body)
  conveys your message
• Good delivery is an art!
• It is clear, interesting, and not distracting
• It has formality good conversational qualities
• energy
• eye contact
• vocal and physical expression
• directness

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Methods of Delivery

• Manuscript or verbatim (word for word)
• -for strict time limits (the news) and accuracy
  (State of the Union)
• Memorized
• - only when very short known so well focus can
  be communicating rather than remembering
• Impromptu
• - little or no preparation
• - use a formula (state topic, the point you want
  to make, enough support to prove it, summarize)
• Extemporaneous (in class!)
• - Prepared and practiced in advance
• -from notes but wording can change
• -advantages more conversational, natural,
  better eye contact.

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Vocal Control

• Adjust volume for room and audience
• Adjust pitch to create interest/avoid dullness
• Adjust rate for voice, mood of speech, audience
  and occasion
• Use pauses for impact-to signal end of thought,
  let idea sink in, for dramatic effect . AVOID
  vocal pauses (um, like, you know, well, etc.)!
• Use vocal variety-in the above ways to be dynamic
  not dull
• Pronunciation errors reduce credibility. Check
  dictionary or with others so rehearsing is
  correct.
• Articulate carefully each speech sound
  distinctly. Dont be lazy! Diagnose errors then
  practice. (The college has free services here.)
• Dialects (Accents, grammar patterns, vocabulary
  for region or ethnic group) - neither right nor
  wrong, but heavy use can cause problems if
  audience does not share it.

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Physical Delivery

• Four Aspects of Bodily Action
• Appearance matters!
• Movement- matters before during after speech,
  avoid distracting moves
• Gestures- plan for impact, dont distract, be
  natural, adapt to audience and occasion
• Eye Contact
• Creates a bond w/ audience
• Gets attention credibility
• Helps audience perceive you as sincere, honest,
  comfortable
• Aids your response to audience feedback during
  speech

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Improving Delivery

• Say aloud the preparation outline
• - see if it sounds good, clarify and revise
• Prepare speaking outline
• - (only key words/phrases in same format)
• Practice aloud with your speaker outline
• now, just learn ideas and structure, not exact
  words
• Polish
• using mirror (nonverbal), tape (verbal) and
  other persons (last)
• Dress rehearse in as similar a situation as
  possible
• - empty class, w/visual aids, an audience if
  possible
• Start early to reduce tension and be in control!

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Answering Audience ?s If Needed

• ?s can impact the audience as much as the speech
• Think of poss. ?s and answers, practicing aloud
• Managing a ?/A session
• Find out if there will be ?/A period.
• Stay positive, calm and open. ?s show interest
  in your topic, are a chance to clarify and
  further impress audience.
• Listen carefully to each ?, and ask for
  clarification if needed so you can answer.
• Direct answers to entire audience (not just the
  one who asked), and restate each ? Before
  answering.
• Be honest and straightforward. Say if you dont
  know,offer to find out, but DONT bluff!
• Dont waste time. Stay on track, avoid debating,
  and wrap up by thanking audience for their
  attention IF there is a ?/a period.

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Ch. 13 Visual Aids

• Advantages of using
• Types
• Guidelines for creating
• Use

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Types of Visual Aids

• Objects
• Models
• Photographs
• Drawings
• Graphs
• Charts
• Video
• Transparencies
• Multimedia-problematic

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Advantages of Visual Aids

• Stronger clarity
• More interest
• More retention of your message
• More credibility
• Improved persuasiveness
• Help to reduce speech fright

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Types of Visuals

• Objects
• Models
• Photos
• Drawings
• Graphs
• Charts
• Video
• Transparencies
• Multimedia -avoid
• Poster board is safest!

• Follow directions for
• Size - Make sure details are large enough to
  see easily in back of the room
• Simplicity - uncluttered, clear, (only what is
  needed)
• Words/numbers - use text directions IF someone
  else can see easily in back of classroom
• Fonts only 2 in an aid (1titles 1
  subtitles or text) Not fancy!
• Color (no pastels or neons)
• Limit the number of colors
• Contrasting colors help differentiate
• Be consistent
• Use to highlight key points

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Ch. 15 Speaking to Persuade

• Define
• Importance
• Ethics
• Psychology
• Propositions (or Questions) of Fact
• Propositions (or Questions) of Value
• Propositions (or Questions) of Policy

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Importance of Persuasion

• Defined The process of creating, reinforcing, or
  changing belief or action (advocating)
• -Get listeners to agree perhaps act on it.
• Benefits all parts of your life
• Personal, community, career
• At least 26 of U.S. gross domestic product is
  jobs related to persuasion
• The more you know, the better critical thinking
  to evaluate daily persuasive choices. (1 M
  commercials by age of 20)

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Ethics of Persuasion

• As always, your goals and methods must be
  ethical. (A good person speaking well)
• NO ethical shortcuts!
• Maintaining trust with audience is vital to
  credibility.
• Present evidence fairly accurately.
• Learn all sides of issues get facts straight.
• Dont misrepresent sources, quote out of context,
  or pretend a few details the entire story.
• Language is powerful, so use it responsibly
• Base speech on facts and logic before appealing
  to emotions

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Psychology of Persuasion

• Controversial topics make audience analysis
  adaptation more demanding than just informing.
• Easier to explain than get agreement.
• Needs more research and preparation time
• You deal with audience knowledge of topic
  attitudes,
• so use strategy!
• Tailor message to audience values, attitudes and
  beliefs.
• Any move from opposed to agreement is persuasion.
• Some will not agree.
• Learn
• how listeners process and respond to persuasive
  messages
• Your target audience

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How Listeners Process Persuasion

• A mental give-and-take with the speaker
• A mental dialogue with the speaker
• Assessing credibility, delivery, support,
  language, reasoning, and emotional appeals
• Especially when involved with topic its
  related to their lives
• Anticipate possible objections deal with them
  in the speech.

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The Target Audience

• Defined The portion of the audience you most
  want to persuade.
• Remember the ideas and feelings of entire
  audience,
• but some already agree and some never will.
• You can use observation, interviews and
  questionnaires to learn your target audience and
  the issues to discuss.
• Tailor the speech to fit their values and concerns

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Questions (or Propositions) of Fact, Value, and
Policy

• Proposition of Fact Provable
• About the truth or falsity of an assertion
• Will a new President change our economy? or A
  new President will change our economy.
• Proposition of Value A judgment
• About the worth, rightness, morality, etc. of an
  idea or actionRaising taxes is right/wrong.
• Question (or proposition) of Policy
  Should/shouldnt
• About whether or not a specific course of action
  should be taken
• The War in Iraq should/should not end in 6
  months.

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Speeches of Fact

• It must be a controversial topic.
• While informative speaking is nonpartisan or
  impartial, persuasive speeches of Fact are
  partisan, advocating one view of the facts-the
  speakers view.
• UFOs do exist.
• Arrange topically by reasons or spatially

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Propositions of Value

• Involves facts and beliefs about the facts, not
  just personal opinion or taste
• Use controversial topic
• Not just stating beliefs, but stressing your
  position in light of defined criteria for making
  a value judgment
• What are your standards for judgment?
• Justify your claim (opinion)!
• Show how your facts fit/dont fit the standards
  to persuade
• Organize topically
• Usually
• List the standards (criteria) for judgment
• Then apply your facts to the standards
• Do NOT argue for or against action of any kind.

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Propositions of Policy

• If you say something should or should not be
  done, its arguing for or against a policy
• Either passive agreement or (immediate) action
• Policy has 3 issues Need, Plan, Practicality
• Prove a serious, widespread need. Speaker has
  burden of proof.
• Describe major features of your plan.
• Prove practicality.
• Plan solves the problem - A similar plan has
  worked elsewhere
• Does not creates new, more serious problems
• Organizing
• when changing a policy, problem-solution or
  problem-cause-solution order
• If audience agrees problem exists, perhaps
  comparative advantages order
• If you seek action from listeners, Monroes
  Motivated Sequence

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Monroes Motivated Sequence

• This method follows the psychology of persuasion
  (human thinking)
• Attention get attention and start relating to
  audience
• Need Make them feel a need for change
• Prove a serious problem exists, and use strong
  support (statistics, examples, testimony),
  related to audiences values or vital interests.
  (so concerned, ready to hear your solution)
• Satisfaction Satisfy the need for a solution by
  giving a plan.
• Show how it will work.
• Give enough details so listeners can understand
  clearly.
• Visualization Visualize plans benefits, using
  vivid imagery to show how audience will profit.
• They should SEE how much better off they will be
  if we adopt plan or how much worse if we dont
  adopt it.
• Action Say what you want them to do AND how to
  do it.
• Give address to write or e-mail tell how or
  where to join an organization.
• Conclude with final emotional appeal to reinforce
  a commitment to act

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Methods of Persuasion

• Audience accepts ideas due to
• Credibility (competence and character)
• Can enhance during the speech with establishing
  common ground, telling qualifications to speak,
  and delivering well.
• Evidence
• Anticipate doubts and answer them with evidence
  which is new, very specific, and from credible
  sources, saying what it proves.
• Reasoning
• Inductive -specific to general
• Deductive-from principle to a particular
  conclusion
• Causal-show relationship between causes and
  effects
• Analogy-In two cases, if it is true for one, it
  is true for the other.
• AVOID FALLACIES Hasty generalization, false
  cause, invalid analogy, red herring, ad hominem,
  and either-or, bandwagon, and slippery slope
• Emotional appeals
• Use emotional language
• Use vivid, rich examples which personalize ideas
  draw in listeners
• Feel emotion yourself and use sincerity and
  conviction in your voice
• Never substitute emotional appeals for evidence
  or reasoning
• - Usually need emotional appeal for policy
  speeches
• Ethics and emotion
• -use ethical goals, speak honestly, and avoid all
  abusive language

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Methods Fallacies-Errors in Reasoning

• Hasty generalization (inductive) concludes w/o
  enough evidence
• I took a basic speech class, so I should be paid
  to speak in public.
• False cause (causal reasoning) assumes because
  an event follows another one, it must be caused
  by it
• We won because were wearing new uniforms!
• Invalid analogy things being compared are not
  essentially alike
• Youll win Miss America because you won Miss
  Hamburger in your home town.
• Red Herring an irrelevant issue diverts
  attention from subject being discussed
• How can you talk about global warming when
  people are starving?
• Ad Hominem attacks the person rather than the
  real issue
• Are we going to believe someone who smoked
  marijuana when he was 12?
• Either-Or (false dilemma-forces 2 alternatives
  when more than 2 exist
• We must either vote for her or admit we are
  racist!
• Bandwagon Anything popular is good, correct,
  desirable
• He must be right. After all, he was elected.
• Slippery Slope taking one step will lead to
  disaster
• If we give in on even one demand in
  negotiations, they will never pay us a raise in
  the future.

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Ch. 17 Occasional Speaking

• Introduction Speeches
• Presentation Speeches
• Acceptance Speeches
• Commemorative Speeches
• After-Dinner Speeches

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Occasional Speaking cont.

• Examples
• Weddings, funerals, dedications, award
  ceremonies, retirements, graduations, etc.

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Introduction speeches

• These speeches aim to fit the needs of a special
  occasion.
• Speech of Introduction-introduces the main
  speaker to the audience by
• building enthusiasm for the speaker and his/her
  topic, and by creating a welcoming climate.
• Tips
• Be brief (The audience came to hear the MAIN
  speaker.)
• Be accurate (Check for accuracy with the speaker,
  esp. pronunciation)
• Adapt to the occasion (level of formality)
• Adapt to the speaker (Dont overpraise or reveal
  things in poor taste from the speakers point of
  view.)
• Adapt to the audience (Make this aud. want to
  hear this speaker on this subject. If audience
  knows speaker, less credibility will need to be
  built for the speaker. Give what each audience
  wants to hear-know your audience. One speaker
  for 2 audiences can be 2 speeches of
  introduction.)
• Create a sense of anticipation (Usually you will
  save the name for last, or create interest by
  giving facts not known, esp. related to the
  topic. PRACTICE until it can be delivered
  extemporaneously with sincerity and enthusiasm.)

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Speeches of Presentation

• These speeches present a gift, award or some
  other public recognition.
• Be brief from a few lines to 4 or 5 minutes in
  length.
• Adapt to your audience and occasion
• Focus on achievements related to award in
  meaningful way for your audience
• May need to
• explain purpose of the award if not known
• praise the losers if a public competition

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Speeches of Acceptance

• It gives thanks for a gift, award, or other
  public recognition.
• Be brief Learn ahead if possible the expected
  time.
• Be humble Thank those giving it and those who
  helped you gain it.
• Be gracious Be sincerely grateful. Dont tell
  them you dont deserve it!
• Adapt formality and attitude to audience and
  occasion

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Commemorative Speeches

• Aim pay tribute to person, group, idea, or
  institution
• Speeches of praise or celebration, using creative
  language to express feelings stir sentiment
  that inspires audience to respect/admire the
  subject
• Go for dignity, meaning, and honest emotion
• Create imagery and rhythm with language
• Avoid clichés and trite phrases
• Review Language Chapter Metaphor, simile,
  parallelism, repetition, antithesis and
  alliteration

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Commemorative

• Say why the subject is praiseworthy
• Give some history of the person or institution.
• Use examples, testimony and even statistics to
  inspire. (Its not just informative.)

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After-Dinner Speeches

• Also called Speech to Entertain
• Given after any meal, any time of day
• Can be formal or casual setting
• Lighter in tone than informative or persuasive,
  it makes a serious point about a serious topic,
  but in a lighthearted manner. To entertain my
  audience by showing them the ridiculous extremes
  of school Zero Tolerance policies

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Speech to Entertain, cont.

• Audience wants good-natured speech, stimulating
  their imaginations by treating topic in a new way
  
• Not technical or argumentative
• Support chosen primarily for entertainment
• Requires careful preparation and organization
  with a central theme and serious point about it.
• Humor can be here, but not needed. Its not a
  string of jokes or stand up comedy act!
• Interesting support, creative language and clever
  phrasing will succeed. Dont go for laughs!