How do we understand the behavior of others?: The agency system

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How do we understand the behavior of
others?The agency system

• Clark Barrett
• UCLA
• barrett_at_anthro.ucla.edu

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Heider and Simmel (1944)
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What is agency?

• Agency the capacity to act in a goal-directed
  (intentional) way
• Humans use the intentional stance (Dennett
  1987) to interpret and make predictions about
  behavior.
• Main question What cognitive mechanisms allow us
  to do this?

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Talk outline

• Research goal searching for building blocks of
  the agency system
• Perceptual templates / schemas
• Conceptual schemas
• Switching the system on and off
• Interactions with other systems agency and
  social cognition
• Concluding speculations

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Why should you care?

• (Why is the agency system important for culture,
  norms, and evolution?)
• A) A security guard fails to detect a terrorist ?
  50 people die.
• B) A security guard throws a grenade into a plane
  full of passengers ? 50 people die.
• Perhaps understanding intentions gets you more
  than just looking at outcomes?
• (Intentions in behavioral econ Blount, McCabe)

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Decomposing the agency system

• Ultimate goal a computational account

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A black box account(non-computational)
Theory of mind, Belief / desire reasoning,
Intentional stance
INPUTS
OUTPUTS
Behavior predictions
?
Perceptual cues
Judgments Decisions
Knowledge
Whats in here?
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Inside the black box(a modular, or
computational, account)
Conceptual schemas
Perceptual templates / schemas
INPUTS
Predator-prey schema
(AD, ID)
OUTPUTS
Perceptual cues
Social Xch schema
Etc.
Behavior predictions
Knowledge
Processor (ToMM)
Judgments Decisions
Human
John
Scope restrictors / modifiers
Dog
Susan
Lion
Jim
Individuals
Taxa
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Inside the black box(a modular, or
computational, account)
Conceptual schemas
Perceptual templates / schemas
INPUTS
Predator-prey schema
OUTPUTS
Perceptual cues
Social Xch schema
Etc.
Behavior predictions
Knowledge
Processor (ToMM)
Judgments Decisions
Human
John
Scope restrictors
Dog
Susan
Lion
Jim
Individuals
Taxa
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Perceptual templates

• Achieving (many) goals entail certain kinds of
  motion e.g., pursuit
• If intentions have motion signatures, templates
  can be made detectors
• Does the mind contain such templates for
  detecting particular kinds of intentional
  behavior?

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What basic motion schemas do people possess?
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An experimental study of intentional motion
perceptionTodd, Barrett, Miller, Blythe
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An experimental study of intentional motion
perceptionTodd, Barrett, Miller, Blythe

• Question can people reliably use motion to infer
  the intentions of agents, and categorize them?
• Categories Pursuit, court, lead / follow, guard,
  fight, play
• Generated by German adults in game context,
  evaluated by second set of judges (free
  descriptions, forced choice)
• Within categories, no two exemplars alike must
  rely on abstract qualities to make judgment

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6-category study German adults
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German 3-5 yr olds
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• But
• Are Germans just communicating a culturally
  shared schema to other Germans?
• Or are these motion schemas universal?

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Cross-cultural study Shuar of Ecuador
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Cross-cultural study Shuar of Ecuador
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4-category cross-cultural study
Categories Shuar German
Shuar adults, horticulturalists N23 Berlin college students N40 Berlin kindergarteners age 3-5, N36
Chase Apapéatin Verfolgen
Fight Mániatin Kämpfen
Lead Jintíatin Führen
Play Nakurústin Spielen
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Shuar and German adults
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Motion perception summary

• There appear to exist motion schemas for
  particular kinds of intention
• The same templates are present across cultures

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Conceptual schemas
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Conceptual schemas
Perceptual templates / schemas
INPUTS
Predator-prey schema
OUTPUTS
Perceptual cues
Social Xch schema
Etc.
Behavior predictions
Knowledge
Processor (ToMM)
Judgments Decisions
Human
John
Scope restrictors
Dog
Susan
Lion
Jim
Individuals
Taxa
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Conceptual schemas
Perceptual templates / schemas
INPUTS
Predator-prey schema
OUTPUTS
Perceptual cues
Social Xch schema
Etc.
Behavior predictions
Knowledge
Processor (ToMM)
Judgments Decisions
Human
John
Scope restrictors
Dog
Susan
Lion
Jim
Individuals
Taxa
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Conceptual schemas

• Function making inferences about particular
  kinds of intentional interaction.
• May be many, e.g.
• Social exchange,
• mating,
• parent / offspring,
• predator / prey,
• kin altruism
• Fiske relational models
• Is there evidence for them?

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• Predator-prey schema
• ? ?
• Pre-contact
• ????????? ????????? ????????
• Predator Mutual Prey
• detects prey detection detects predator
• ??????? (?)??????? ???????? ??????(?)
• Approach Wait / Flee Wait / Hide Hide
  / Ambush
• ????????
• Pursuit

Key Agents Parameters ? predator ????
knowledge relation ? prey ??? action relation
death
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Study of childrens inferences about
predator-prey interactionsBarrett, Cosmides,
Tooby

• Shuar (N28) and German (N38) 3 to 5 year olds
• Simulated predator-prey encounter with plastic
  models (Jaguar / horse Lion / zebra)
• At each stage, children predict what will happen
  next
• Also infer mental states of predator and prey

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Example question When the lion sees the zebra,
what does the lion want to do ?

• Schema-consistent
• Chase zebra
• Catch zebra
• Bite zebra
• Eat zebra
• Kill zebra
• Inconsistent
• Go away (N1 german)
• Eat grass (N1 shuar)
• Rest DK or no response

3 yrs
4 yrs
5 yrs
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Q When the lion catches the zebra, what will
happen?

• Schema-consistent
• Lion hurts zebra
• Lion kills and / or eats zebra
• Inconsistent
• German 3yr "then he wants to go to the hospital"
  (not clear if lion or zebra
• German 3 yr "lion climbs up to the window and
  falls down
• But Few unrealistic or fantasy answers
• German Shuar similar surprising on cultural
  view

3 yrs
4 yrs
5 yrs
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Summary of responses on predator-prey questions
3 yrs
4 yrs
5 yrs
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Predator-prey schema Summary

• Predator-prey schema is present at an early age
  across cultures
• Leads to realistic inferences about predator and
  prey behavior
• Similar in very different cultures,
  uncontaminated by cultural inputs like fairy
  tales and cartoons
• Other schemas?

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Conceptual schemas
Perceptual templates / schemas
INPUTS
Predator-prey schema
OUTPUTS
Perceptual cues
Social Xch schema
Etc.
Behavior predictions
Knowledge
Processor (ToMM)
Judgments Decisions
Human
John
Scope restrictors
Dog
Susan
Lion
Jim
Individuals
Taxa
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Development of social exchange schemaBarrett,
Keller, Takezawa, Wichary

• Examined childrens judgments of violations of
  bilateral social contracts
• And predictions of reactions of different parties
  to violations
• German 1st and 4th graders

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Childrens judgments of contract violations
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Predicted reactions of victim of contract
violation
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Predicted reactions of violator
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Social contract schema Summary

• Even young children can identify contract
  violations
• Ability to predict others reactions in social
  exchange situations may be useful for moderating
  ones own behavior
• Future research what other schemas are there?
  When do they schemas develop? (e.g. mating?)

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Switching the agency system on and off
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Agency detection

• Some things are agents, and some are not
• Agents require vigilance, and figuring out what
  they are trying to do
• Assuming everything is an agent entails costs
• Selects for discrimination between agents and
  non-agents

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Agency detection activates appropriate inference
systems
AGENT
NON-AGENT
Activate agency system
Activate other object system (e.g. substance)
Different patterns of inference
Inferences licensed cant move, will not react
if touched, can be subdivided into pieces that
retain properties, etc
Inferences licensed can move, will react if
touched, can hurt you etc
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What about dead things?
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Death as the cessation of agencyBarrett and
Behne

• Hypothesis
• Agency detection system contains a remapping
  routine
• AGENT ? SUBSTANCE

ALIVE
DEAD
COW
STEAK
Activate agency system
Activate substance system
Deactivate agency system, activate substance
system
Different inference patterns
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Cross-cultural test of cessation of agency
hypothesis

• 3 to 5 year old German and Shuar children
• Sleep vs death Animals and people
• Target questions
• Can it move?
• If you touched it, could it move?
• Could it hurt you?
• If you made a noise, could it know you were
  there?
• Could it be afraid?
• Sleep / death is a strong test

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Patterns of inference for sleep vs death
Move?
If touched?
Hurt you?
Detect you?
Be afraid?
GERMAN
SHUAR
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Mean correct responses by population and age
German
Shuar
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Cessation of agency summary

• Agency inferences can be switched on and off for
  a particular object
• This aspect of agency detection present by age 4
  or earlier
• Same developmental trajectory across cultures
  suggests core feature of agency system

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Agency and social cognition

• Is a norm violated if it is violated by mistake?

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Intentions and social contract violation

• Cosmides (1989 social contracts are agreements
  to exchange benefits
• Cheating accepting benefit without paying cost
• But
• Suppose you agree to give your friend 1000 if he
  will give you his car next week. However, his car
  is stolen. Has he cheated you?
• Perhaps intentions are an important part of
  social contracts.

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Social contract Wason

• Social contract rule
• If you give me your watch, then I will give you
  10
• Watch no watch 10 5
• P p q q
• About 75 of people pick violation cards

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Manipulating intent, incentive, ability

• Cover story manipulated so that potential
  violator either had
• Intent to violate, or violated by mistake
• Incentive to violate, or no incentive
• Ability to violate, or no ability (except at
  random)
• How do the presence or absence of these factors
  affect subjects vigilance for cheaters (card
  turning patterns)?

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Operationalizing intent

• Benefit / Intent / Ability
• You supervise four women who volunteered to help
  out at the local Board of Education. Your
  volunteers were supposed to follow certain rules
  for assigning students from various towns to the
  appropriate school district. Each volunteer is
  the mother of a teenager who is about to enter
  high school, and each processed her own childs
  documents. You overheard that some of your
  volunteers intended to break the rules when it
  came to assigning their own children to a school.
  Here is the situation
• Although both communities are equally
  prosperous, the parents in Dover City have always
  cared about the quality of their schools,
  including Dover High, and have been willing to
  pay for it. In contrast, the parents in the
  neighboring town of Hanover have never wanted to
  spend the money, and have opposed any taxes to
  improve Hanover High. The Board of Education
  created this rule If a student is to be
  assigned to Dover High School, then that student
  must live in Dover City.
• A. Dover High School B. Dover City
• C. Hanover High School D. town of Hanover

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Without intent

• Benefit / Ability
• You supervise four women who volunteered to help
  out at the local Board of Education. Your
  volunteers were supposed to follow certain rules
  for assigning students from various towns to the
  appropriate school district. Each volunteer is
  the mother of a teenager who is about to enter
  high school, and each processed her own childs
  documents. You know your volunteers are honest,
  but you suspect that they may have made some
  innocent mistakes they may have broken the rules
  for assigning each child to a particular
  school...

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Operationalizing incentive, ability

• Incentive parents sort their own students into
  schools, or only students of others
• Ability students names are written on sheet, or
  students identified only by code numbers

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20
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Agency and social contracts summary

• Vigilance for cheating affected 20 for each
  factor
• Additive
• The difference between intentional and accidental
  violation of norms may be important in many other
  contexts as well killing, politeness, fairness,
  etc..

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Conclusion
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Summary of findings

• The agency system is not a single ability, but
  is comprised of many components
• Perceptual templates for identifying agents and
  specific intentions of agents
• Conceptual schemas for reasoning about
  intentions provide the content for theory of
  mind
• Agency system can be turned on and off
• Agency system can influence social attribution
  and decision making processes

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Eventually, we will need a fully computational
account
Theory of mind, Belief / desire reasoning,
Intentional stance
INPUTS
OUTPUTS
Behavior predictions
?
Perceptual cues
Judgments Decisions
Knowledge
Whats in here?
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(Which might or might not look something like
this.)
Conceptual schemas
Perceptual templates / schemas
INPUTS
Predator-prey schema
OUTPUTS
Perceptual cues
Social Xch schema
Etc.
Behavior predictions
Knowledge
Processor (ToMM)
Judgments Decisions
Human
John
Scope restrictors
Dog
Susan
Lion
Jim
Individuals
Taxa
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Understanding the agency system might have many
implications for understanding social
evolution.How important is the ability to
understand intent for the evolution of
cooperation, norms, etc?
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The end