Writing The Biomedical Manuscript: A Systematic Approach

1
Writing The Biomedical ManuscriptA Systematic
Approach
Christopher Dant Stanford Medical School
2
Manuscript Writing

• Part I
• About writing and what makes a good paper
• Parts of a manuscript
• Figures and tables
• Writing strategies
• Part II
• Essentials of good writing
• Sentences-Paragraphs
• Common writing mistakes

3
Medical Communications Today

• Medical science becoming increasing specialized
• 1976 5,000 biomedical journals, only in
  libraries
• 2006 gt17,000 biomedical journals, electronic on
  internet
• Subspecialties and new vocabularies has increased
  dramatically over past 20 years
• Biomedical research moving to interdisciplinary
  initiativesThe NIH Roadmap
• Thus, readership increasingly specialized yet
  interdisciplinary, requiring an approach that is
  common, clear, simplified.
• We must strive to make our articles increasingly
  reader friendly and cross-discipline in
  language
• Dr. Jerome Kassirer, Former Editor, NEJM

4
A Recognized Problem

• There is no form of prose more difficult to
  understand and more tedious to read than the
  average scientific paper!

-Dr. Francis Crick, 1994The Astonishing
Hypothesis
5
The Avoidable Downfall

• Your research
• Carefully planned
• Novel
• Flawlessly designed and executed
• Your paper
• Poorly designed and writtenrejected or delayed
• The loss or delay of disseminating important
  critical information to the science community

6
Journal Editors Agree

• Good writing signals clear thinking and an
  organized approach
• Clear direct English and logical, cohesive,
  organized writing are key to acceptance
• Even the most novel and well-constructed study
  will be rejected if the writing is flawed

7
Writing is an Essential Skill

• The ability to communicate clearly and precisely
  through the written word is an essential skill
  for medical researchers
• Delayed publications and denial of funding
  because of poorly written manuscripts and grants
  continues to plague researchers
• The career of a researcher can depend heavily on
  this skill

8
Key Difficulties

• Many papers are poorly constructed and written
• Some scientists have not learned good manuscript
  writing techniques
• Others do not enjoy writing, and do not take the
  time or effort to ensure that the prose is clear
  and logical.
• Authors are typically so familiar with the
  material that it is difficult to step back and
  view it from the point of view of a reader not
  familiar with the science
• Peer review is therefore critical

9
Manuscript Deficiencies

• 57 articles evaluated to Emerg Med28 accepted,
  29 rejected/pending
• Of these 29
• Ambiguous methods 77
• Ambiguous results 68
• Conclusions not warranted by data 72
• Poor referencing 56
• Inadequate study design description 51
• Unclear tables 49
• Overly long discussion 49
• Inadequate definition of terms 49
• Deficiencies in manuscript preparation are more
  frequent than mistakes in study design and
  execution. Specific trainingin manuscript
  preparation is indicated.
• Taylor and Brown, Emerg Med 13(4)444-50, 2001

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Top 10 Reasons Manuscripts Rejected
Avoidable

• Wrong journal, format, preparation
• Disorganized study design
• Defective tables, figures
• Poor organization throughout, writing, spelling
• No hypothesis or problem statement
• No or insufficient conclusion
• Overinterpretation of results
• Article unfocused, too verbose and long
• Inappropriate statistical methods methods not
  sufficient to repeat study
• Poorly written abstract/title

Pierson DJ, Respiratory Care 49(10), 2004
Byrne DW, Publishing Medical Research Papers,
Williams and Wilkins, 1998
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The Paper

• Writing and editing the paper is the last step in
  the research process
• The paper tells the story from study inception,
  through data collection, statistical analysis,
  findings and and discussion
• The process of writing the paper should be
  analogous to the research processit requires
  attention to detail, time, and revision

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Manuscript Reviews
Editor Title Abstract Headings References Tables
/Figures Read Through
Appropriate to journal? Conform to guidelines?
Editor Reports Summary of peer reviews Summary of
editors review
13
Start with Outline

• Outline each segment of the paper using
  traditional outline I, II, III, A, B, 1, 2, a
• Forces logical thought and order
• Eliminates unorganized thinking and writing
• Uncovers flaws in arguments
• Reduces wordiness
• Makes writing easier
• Include your draft figures, tables

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Outline

• Introduction
• Zinc plays a critical role in biochemical
  functions in cells
• Mitochondrial function (Billings)
• Cell motility (Jones, Smith)
• Zn concentrations affected by physiological
  changes in pregnancy (Billings)
• Zn deficiency increases spontaneous abortions and
  pregnancy complications
• Rhesus monkeys (Putter)
• White rats (Michaels, Reiss)
• In humans, the role of Zn deficiency in pregnancy
  outcome is unclear (Brown)
• Objective we evaluated whether Zn
  supplementation during pregnancy is associated
  with changes in birth outcomes.

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Journal Editor Whats A Good Manuscript?

• Title descriptive and specific
• Abstract descriptive, specific, and correct
  length
• Introduction and background short and strong
• Research question clearly stated
• Literature cited is comprehensive and relevant
• Methods descriptive enough to be replicated
  appropriate statistical analyses
• Figures and Tables stand on their own, support
  conclusions, well constructed
• Citations relevant to topic
• Discussion within boundaries of findings
  demonstrate how findings have helped resolve
  stated problem implications and future work
  addressed
• Writing clear, terse, logical
• Manuscript follows journal guidelines

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The Title
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The Title

• First reviewed by Journal Editors before abstract
• Short
• Specific, Relevant, Descriptive
• Write lastyour findings and conclusions may
  alter your title

18
Title Ask Yourself

• What is the single most important point of this
  study?
• How would I tell my colleague, in one short
  descriptive sentence
• whats this study about?
• A descriptive, specific title perfectly framing
  your study will be apparent only after youve
  written the paper and abstract.
• Start with a short descriptive working title

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Unnecessary Title Phrases

• A Study of A Study to Determine Results of
• An Innovative Method
• Contributions to (of)
• Investigations on (concerning, about)
• Observations on
• A Trial Comparing

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TitleSpecific Descriptive

• A Study Involving Medical Imaging with Genetic
  Patients and Turners Syndrome
• MRI Brain Imaging in Children With Turners
  Syndrome and Other X Chromosome Abnormalities
• Nerve Growth Factors and Sodium Channels in
  Pancreatic Cells
• Nerve Growth Factor Increases Sodium Channel
  Expression in Pancreatic (Beta) Cells
  Implications for Insulin Secretion

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TitleSpecific Descriptive

• Down SyndromeWhere we are today A Review
• Down Syndrome Genetic, Behavior, and Functional
  Neuroimaging Research 2000-2006
• Aldosterone and Heart Failure
• Aldosterone Plasma Concentrations Increase with
  Severity of Congestive Heart Failure
• A study of MI in older Americans 1994-1999
• Epidemiological survey of MI in
  Community-Dwelling American Males Over 65 years
• Lazarus arise! Life and Death Issues in Intensive
  Care
• End-of-Life Care Issues for Critically Ill
  Patients in Intensive Care Hospitals

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TitleSpecific Descriptive

• Hepatitis C virus associated membranoproliferative
  glomerulonephritis A tale of Mice and Men
• Membranoproliferative Glomerulonephritis
  Associated with Hepatitis C Virus in F39(b) Nude
  Mice Applicability to Humans
• Isolated unilateral tubular sclerosis-associated
  severe late-stage renal cystic disease in
  neonates
• Severe, Late-Stage Renal Cystic Disease in
  Neonates Associated with Isolated Unilateral
  Tubular Sclerosis
• Drug trial comparing systemic beta blocker with
  calcium-channel blocker in CHF
• Open-label Comparison of Altenolol and
  Propranolol versus Nifedipine in Patients with
  CHF Beta Blocker and Calcium-Channel Blocker
  Mechanisms

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Dont Stack Adjectives

• Female but not male serotonin reuptake
  transporter (5-HTT) model knockout mice exhibit
  bladder instability Implications
• 5-HTT female (not male) knockout mice have
  unstable bladders Implications for Stress
  Urinary Incontinence Treatment

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Good TitlesSentences

• Intellectual impairments occur in children with
  blood lead concentrations above 10 mg per
  deciliter
• Increased 17b-estradiol suppresses PTHrP gene
  expression in breast cancer cell lines
• Spinal cord stimulation attenuates visceromotor
  reflexes in a rat model of post-inflammatory
  colonic hypersensitivity
• Rhinovirus challenge decreases antioxidant
  enzymes in respiratory epithelial cells

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Not Sentences But Good Titles

• Comparison of MRI and CT for Detection of Acute
  Intracerebral Hemorrhage
• Extracranial Thrombotically Active Carotid Plaque
  as a Risk for Ischemic Stroke
• Annual Revaccination Against Influenza and
  Mortality Risk in Community-Dwelling Elderly
  Persons
• Effect of Antihypertensive Agents on
  Cardiovascular Events in Patients With Coronary
  Disease and Normal Blood Pressure. The CAMELOT
  Study A Randomized Controlled Trial

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The Abstract
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The Abstract

• 1st Impression to journal editor and the reader!
• Follow the Journals Guidelines
• Most abstracts are often too long 250 words
  Cannot upload your paper!
• Structure it (outline it)
• The abstract is the single most important part
  of a manuscript, yet the most often poorly
  written -JAMA Editor

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The Abstract

• First looked at by editors/sometimes only thing
  read by readers
• Sometimes only part available electronicallyKEY
  words!
• Summarizes the main points succinctly
• Background/Significance
• Objective
• Study design, method
• Primary germane results
• Principal conclusions, implications
• Do NOT be vaguebe substantive and brief
• NOT The implications are summarized
• INSTEAD Summarize the implications!

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Abstract

• Emphasize methods, main results, and conclusion
• Introduction/purpose 1 short sentence
• Put objective as imperative style
• Objective To evaluate whether zinc
  supplementation during pregnancy affects infant
  birth measures.
• Methods, Results 2-4 sentences
• Conclusion 1-2 sentences

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Structured Abstract

• ContextSummarize the study rationale and provide
  clinical (or other) reason for the study
  question.
• ObjectiveState the purpose or question asked. If
  more than one objective, state primary objective
  and key secondary objectives.
• DesignDescribe basic design, including relevant
  details.
• SettingGeneral community, primary care,
  hospital, etc.
• Patient or other populationdescribe
  demographics, disorders, inclusion/exclusion
  criteria, etc.
• Interventionsname, dose, dosage
• Main outcome measure(s)
• Results
• Conclusions

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The Effect of Zinc Supplementation on Pregnancy
Outcome

• ObjectiveTo evaluate whether zinc
  supplementation during pregnancy affects infant
  birth measures.
• DesignRandomized, double-blind,
  placebo-controlled trial.
• SettingOutpatient clinic at University of
  Alabama at Birmingham.
• Patients580 healthy African-American pregnant
  women with plasma zinc levels below normal
  levels, randomized at 19 weeks gestational age
  and divided by median body mass of 26 kg/m2 into
  placebo and zinc supplement groups.
• InterventionWomen receiving a non-zinc-containing
  prenatal vitamin tablet were randomized to 25
  mg/day zinc or placebo.
• Outcome MeasuresBirth weight, gestational age at
  birth, head circumference at birth.
• ResultsInfants from zinc supplement group had
  greater birth weight (plt0.01) and head
  circumference (p0.02) than those in placebo
  group. Women with body mass 26 kg/m2 had
  infants with significantly higher birth weights
  (median 245 g, plt0.001) and larger head
  circumference (median 0.7 cm, p0.003).
• ConclusionsDaily zinc supplementation in women
  with low plasma zinc concentrations in early
  pregnancy is associated with greater birth
  weights and head circumferences, with the effect
  occurring in women with body mass index 26
  kg/m2. The specific effects of zinc on the fetus
  are unknown, and future work is focusing on zinc
  effects on embryonic cells in vitro.
• 192 words

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Abstract Be Specific

• The principles of reconstruction of the traumatic
  losses of the external ear are presented, with
  emphasis on effective treatment of the acutely
  injured ear. The steps necessary for obtaining
  satisfactory reconstruction are discussed,
  including two new techniques.
• In the past decade, advances in soft tissue
  surgical techniques have allowed surgeons to
  successfully reconstruct detached ears. We
  present two new surgical reconstruction
  techniques of the acutely injured detached ear.
  These include the use of local and distant
  tissues to obtain soft-tissue coverage, and the
  recent use of Silastic cartilage for structural
  support

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The Introduction
34
Introduction

• Why did you carry out this research? State the
  specific purpose or rationale for the study.
• What is the existing state of knowledge of this
  topic? Synthesize information tracing the
  development of the problem and summarize its
  current stateie, the background. You ask (with
  citations)
• Whats known?
• Whats unknown?
• What are the gaps in knowledge this study will
  fill?
• What are you going to do and what do you expect
  to find?
• State your hypothesis or question clearly
  (Objectives, Aims)
• Give only strictly pertinent references.

35
Introduction

• This is a vital part of your paperit convinces
  (or not) the reader whether your study
• Has merit and asks important research questions
• Is focused and supported by relevant recent
  citations
• Is ultimately important to human health and human
  disease
• Reviewers and editors will judge the papers
  importance in the introduction.
• You will better focus your introduction AFTER you
  construct your findings (results) and consider
  them (discussion).
• Your research question is the most important
  partin your discussion, you will address whether
  the question or hypothesis was answered based on
  your data.

36
Introduction Structure

• What is the general problem or current situation?
• Zinc plays a critical role in many biochemical
  functions, including nucleic acid metabolism and
  is critical in early development.
• What is the specific problem or controversy? Its
  significance?
• Zinc deficiency is associated with increase
  metabolic problems in fetuses. Studies evaluating
  relationship between zinc intake and pregnancy
  outcomes have produced conflicting results for
  many reasons
• What are our hypotheses/questions, and how will
  we answer them?
• To clarify the relationship between zinc levels
  in the mothers diet and pregnancy outcomes, we
  undertook a randomized placebo-controlled trial
  of zinc supplementation.
• Our objective was to determine if zinc
  supplementation was associated with higher birth
  weight.
• Our findings will help to provide continuing
  nutritional guidelines in pregnancy.

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The Methods
38
Methods are Critical Editors Responses
What section contains the most flaws?
What section responsible for outright rejection?
Discussion
Discussion
Results
Results
Methods
Methods
Introduction
Introduction
Byrne DW, Publishing Medical Research Papers,
Williams and Wilkins, 1998
39
Methods

• Editors judge the study on whether your methods
  are adequate to answer your specific aim or
  hypothesis
• Rationale for choosing procedures/tests
• The pivotal point to judge whether the results
  are valid
• Dont suggest a method you have no expertise with
• Your peer reviewer may uncover this
• Use consultants for methods you have no
  experience with, stating this in paper
• Methods usually the weakest section
• Often deficient in detail, not providing enough
  information to replicate the study
• Statistical shortcomings

40
Methods

• Study design or analysis type and period of study
• Condition or disease studied
• Human subjects approval
• Details of sample (number, recruiting methods of
  study subjects, patients, how organized)
• Interventions, outcome measures, statistical
  analyses
• Include the locations and times that data were
  collected
• Give enough information to replicate the study
  dont assume only the specialist in your field
  will read it

41
Methods

• Balance between brevity and completeness
• Sometimes reference an often-used method
• Use figures and tables (eg, flow diagram)
• Naming thingsbe consistent
• Acronymsspell out first time, use consistently
  throughout
• Specialized tests, termsuse identical name in
  text, figs, tables
• Develop list of frequently used terms
• Present in logical order and your subsequent
  results should follow that same order

42
MethodProcedures
Method diagrams communicate schedule of
procedures, enrollment, study design, mechanisms
of action, guidelines, algorithms to reduce text
and increase comprehension.
43
The Results
44
ResultsThe Beginning

• The heart of your paper
• Write after figures and tables are constructed
• Consider your data critically
• Construct tables, figures and include them in
  outline
• Write the results
• Use subheadings
• Results determine
• Whether youve answered your original question(s)
• Your direction for future studies
• Both of which belong in the discussion

45
ResultsThe Beginning

• State ALL the findings
• Whether significant or not
• Without bias or interpretation
• Do not include weaknesses, strengths of study, ie
  dont discuss results
• List experiments in order listed in methods
• Use logical headers and group your findings
• Characteristics of study subjects
• Findings in order listed in methods
• General to specific
• Use past tense
• Results confirm or reject your hypothesis they
  do not prove anything.

46
Results

• Short and to the pointMain or most important
  findings first
• Present only data directly relevant to the
  studyfocus
• Dont repeat methods but you may remind the
  reader briefly how you measured something.
• Allow the data to speak for itselfuse
  tables/figures construct them first and use as a
  basis for writing
• In Tables and Figures, be descriptive, specific.
  Do not repeat the obvious
• NO Results of the kidney lead analysis are shown
  in Table 1.
• YES Kidney lead concentrations increased in
  group 1 over the first 10 study weeks (Table 1).
• Present absolute numbers and percentages so
  reviewers can judge the significance of the
  findings.
• Statistical significance ? clinical significance

47
Results or Data?

• Results
• Mean translational movements in the X (left to
  right), Y (back to front) and Z (bottom to top)
  head directions were 0.10 0.11 mm, 0.16 0.03
  mm, and 0.65 0.58 mm, respectively. Mean
  rotational movements about the three axes were
  0.44 0.42 degrees, 0.24 0.26 degrees, and
  0.18 0.17 degrees, respectively. Movement was
  not significantly correlated with age for
  translation in the X (r -0.09 p 0.69), Y (r
  0.21 p 0.35) or Z (r -1.02 p 0.64)
  directions. Movement was not significantly
  correlated with age for rotation in the X (r
  0.15 p 0.51), Y (r -0.20 p 0.35) or Z (r
  0.02 p 0.94) directions.

48
Results!
49
ResultsDont Regurgitate Data

• As shown in Table 1, the mean age of participants
  was 20.4 2 years, and 80 of patients were
  Caucasian. Treatment group contained 40 patients,
  whereas control group contained 45 patients.
  Table 2 shows the demographics of women in these
  groups. There were 24 women in the control group,
  and 33 women in the treatment group...
• There were no significant differences in
  treatment and control patient intake demographics
  (Table 1), although a significantly greater
  number of patients in the treatment group dropped
  from the study for a variety of reasons, mostly
  relating to adverse reactions. However, analysis
  of patients in this group later revealed that
  those dropped patients had significant disease at
  intake (Table 2). In comparing the two treatment
  groups (Figure 1), we found that...

50
Dont State the Obvious
Figure 1 is a graph illustrating the plasma zinc
levels (µmoL/L) over the 37 weeks versus
gestational age in both the zinc supplement group
and placebo group. The placebo and the zinc group
both decreased over the 37 weeks of the study,
but the differences were significant for the zinc
group.
51
State Whats Important
We measured mothers plasma zinc levels before
randomization (week 19) and at 26, 32, and 37
weeks gestational age (Fig 1). Beginning as
early as 26 weeks and at each timepoint,
differences in plasma zinc levels between placebo
and zinc supplement groups were statistically
significant (P0.05) after randomization.
52
ResultsMajor Mistakes

• Failure to provide all the data critical to
  answering the research question
• Interpreting or commenting on results
• Six of the 20 patients required intubation,
  illustrating the seriousness of this problem
  (belongs in Discussion)
• Over 40 of treated rats exhibited a decreased
  inflammatory response, an unexpected finding
  (belongs in Discussion)
• Failure to adequately address statistical methods
• Tables and figures inappropriate, unbalanced
• Tables and figures poorly constructed

53
The Discussion
54
Discussion Construction

• Summarize major findings1st paragraph
• Explain how your findings relate to those of
  otherswhat do they mean?
• Clinical relevance of the findings?
• Limitations and how this influenced your study?
• How will you overcome these in the next studies?
• Explain the implications of findings
• What future direction(s) will you take?

55
Discussion Getting Carried Away

• Few studies make discoveries changing the course
  of scientific direction, and so authors
• Attempt to overly state or the importance of
  their findings
• Come to erroneous or unsupported conclusions
• Uncritically accept statistical results
• This all distracts from works importance and
  signals to the reviewer problems with the
  research
• Also results in excessive length, a common
  problem
• Authors should let the data speak for themselves

56
DiscussionCommon Mistakes

• Unwarranted speculations
• Injecting tangential issues
• Conclusions not supported by the data
• Not suggesting future directions for research
• hypothesis Ô study Ô data/results Ô conclusions
• TIGHT PACKAGE

57
Sections Unbalanced
Article 3650 words
58
Tables Figures
59
Tables and Figures

• Critical to a paperEditors and readers look at
  these before reading the paper!
• Editors judge your paper on how well these are
  constructed
• Stand alone and tell a complete story
• Unambiguousimmediately clear
• Eliminate numerical data and long explanations in
  text
• Figures display important trends, procedures,
  simplify detailed data, and show basic
  methodologies.

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Tables
This requires a table!
61
Tables
This result does NOT require a table!
Growth medium aeration was essential for the
growth of S. coelicolor. At room temperature
(24C), no growth was measurable in stationary
cultures, whereas in aerated cultures, we
measured substantial growth (78 Klett units).
62
Tables Result
In women with BMI lt26 kg/m2, zinc supplementation
was associated with a significant increase in
birth weight of 248 g (P0.005), an increase in
head circumference of 0.7 cm (P0.005), and
increase in arm length of 0.3 cm (P0.03). The
other outcome measures all favored the zinc
supplement group but the differences were not
statistically significant (Table 2).
63
Table Result
Table 3 shows the mean birth weight by the BMI
categories recommended by the NIH Institute of
Medicine. The lower the BMI, the greater the
effect of zinc supplementation on birth weight.
64
Patient Disposition (Results)
Complex Study Design Simplified
65
Bar or Line Graphs-Colors?
This graph will
appear in the journal like this

• Journals DO NOT allow color graphs unless they
  are necessary for understanding the graph

66
Simple Graph

• Use graphing software in word/powerpoint to
  create KISS
• No more than 3-4 groups
• Keep all lines solid, few symbols
• Put in SD and P values if relevant

67
From The Journal Editors Perspective
68
Prepare Your Manuscript Carefully

• Incorrect style irritates reviewers and editors,
  and the wrong style suggests that another journal
  previously rejected the paper.
• Edit carefully
• Eliminate spelling, punctuation, and grammar
  errors
• Good writing requires rewriting
• Check accuracy of references with original
  sources
• Incorrect citations inconvenience the publisher
  and are a disservice to the reader
• Double-check numerical data!
• Numbers in abstract, text, tables, figures,
  ledends, and text must be consistent and correct

69
Avoid Repetition

• Do not disclose results in introduction
• Do not repeat the Introduction in Discussion
• In text
• Do not repeat figure legends, table titles, or
  contents of the tables themselves
• Use tables sparingly
• Presenting a few facts in text takes less space
  than a table
• Do not use tables for presenting simple lists
• Abbreviations, definitions, symbols in figures
  and tables must be explained in legends and
  footnotes
• Never refer a reader back to text for such
  information

70
Journal Review

• Full review and decision takes 1 month
• Editors make decision based on arguments they
  dont count votes from Peer Reviewers
• Most papers undergo 2 rounds before publication
• For borderline decisions, a goal is to avoid
  multiple rounds of review
• Pressure to publish quickly may lead to rejection
  if further experiments are needed

71
What Helps or Hinders the Paper?

• What Helps?
• New data to a point
• Referee or Editor made factual errors (easy to
  prove)
• Careful and accurate response to criticisms
  (table)
• Telling the editor that reviews were helpful in
  improving the paper
• Knowing how to submit to the journal
  electronically Practice!
• What Doesnt?
• Referees were unfair and the criticisms were
  largely not valid
• Guesses at referee identity followed by personal
  attacks
• Specific evidence of bias by referee (difficult
  to prove)
• Endorsements or (positive) statements about your
  standing and reputation

72
The Paper Is Cohesive

• Question (objective, specific aim) is posed in
  Introduction
• Methods tell how you propose to answer these aims
• Results presented answer (or not) the question
• Discussion should be within the bounds of the
  results
• Conclusions directly answer the original
  questions in the Introduction
• Each section should refer back to one another

73
Evaluate Your Paper

• To understand and evaluate your paper, the editor
  will ask (and so should you)

• What specific questions/aims does the paper
  address?
• Are the methods/design adequate to answer your
  questions?
• What are the main conclusions?
• What specific evidence (data) supports those
  conclusions?
• What is the quality of that evidence?
• Conclusions what is the studys
  significancewhat insights or new directions are
  evident?

74
My Suggestions

• Put the manuscript away for a couple of days
• Read troublesome areas aloud
• Dont try to edit a mangled paragraphdelete and
  rewrite it
• Your colleagues reviews of writing and
  table/figures are valuabledont be defensive
  about edits
• Let go of academic writing habits and dont
  imitate others writing. Develop your own clear,
  direct style

75
Writing Deficiencies
Most commonly cited by journal editors

• Wordiness and redundancies
• Poor flow of ideas
• Poor syntax and grammar
• Excessive abstraction
• Unnecessary complexity
• Excessive compression
• Unnecessary qualification

• Cut, condense, combine
• Outline to catch logic problems
• Consult an editor
• Be specific and descriptive
• Keep it simple and direct
• Do not overly compress writing
• Qualify statements as necessary

Byrne, D. Science Editor 232, 2000
76
Summary

• Outline your paper
• Start early as your data is being analyzed
• Look at your data and decide how to organize and
  present your results tables, figures, text
• Patterns and clues will emerge to guide your
  argument
• Start with results then introduction and
  discussion/conclusions
• Write title and abstract last
• Put it away, re-read, give to your colleagues to
  read
• Revise, revise, and re-revise
• Adhere to journal guidelines!
• Critically evaluate your paper with an editors
  eye
• Write clearly, logically, and simply!