Scientific Revolution

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The
Scientific
Revolution
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The Scientific Revolution

• In the 1500s and 1600s the Scientific Revolution
  changed the way Europeans looked at the world.

• People began to make conclusions based on
  experimentation and observation, instead of
  merely accepting traditional ideas.

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Before the Scientific Revolution

• Until the mid 1500s, European scholars accepted
  and believed the teachings of Ptolemy, an ancient
  Greek astronomer.

Ptolemy (87-140 A.D.)

• Ptolemy taught that the Earth was the center of
  the universe.

• People felt this was common sense, and the
  geocentric theory was supported by the Church.

• It was not until some startling discoveries
  caused Europeans to change the way they viewed
  the physical world.

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Before the Scientific Revolution
Ptolemy (87-100 A.D.)

• Ptolemys geocentric model of the solar system
• Earth
• Moon
• Mercury
• Venus
• Sun
• Mars
• Jupiter
• Saturn

• Notice, the Earth is first, and not the sun, as
  it should be.

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Nicolaus Copernicus

• Copernicus was a Polish astronomer who studied
  in Italy.

• In 1543 Copernicus published On the Revolutions
  of the Heavenly Spheres.

• In his book, Copernicus made two conclusions

1. The universe is heliocentric, or sun-centered.
2. The Earth is merely one of several planets
   revolving around the sun.

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Nicolaus Copernicus

• Copernicus model of the solar system
• Sun
• Moon
• Mercury
• Venus
• Earth
• Mars
• Jupiter
• Saturn

• Notice, the sun is first, not the Earth, as
  Ptolemy believed.

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Nicolaus Copernicus

• Copernicus came to these conclusions using
  mathematical formulas.

• The Copernican conception of the universe marked
  the start of modern science and astronomy.

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The Copernican Heliocentric Model
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Copernicuss Scientific Theories

• Considered the founder of modern science
• Believed that the earth was round and the earth
  revolved around the sun (contrary to popular
  belief)
• The heliocentric theory was not new, but
  Copernicus established the mathematical basis
• To avoid the risk of persecution,
  excommunication, or imprisonment because his were
  revolutionary and contrary to church beliefs,
  Copernicus worked in privacy for more than 30
  years just before his death, friends helped to
  published his work
• Copernicuss theory was first taught in several
  universities in the 1500s and permeated the
  scientific world by 1600

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Reaction to Copernicus

• Most scholars rejected his theory because it
  went against Ptolemy, the Church, and because it
  called for the Earth to rotate on its axis.

• Many scientists of the time also felt that if
  Ptolemys reasoning about the planets was wrong,
  then the whole system of human knowledge could be
  wrong.

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Giordano Bruno 1548 1600 AD

• Italian monk
• Believed Copernicus was right and that the earth
  revolved around the sun
• Believed the earth was alive because it moves
  through space
• Believed the universe is huge and everything is
  made up of atoms

• He did not do original research just used reason
  and speculation.
• Bruno wandered around Europe teaching and writing
  for a living.
• He returned to Italy and found trouble

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Bruno vs the Inquisition

• Bruno had been offered a teaching job in Venice
  and thought his employer would protect him.
• Instead, Bruno was arrested by the Inquisition
  for not supporting the Geo-Centric Theory

• After seven years in prison, Bruno was tried as a
  heretic.
• He was burned at the stake for his scientific
  ideas.

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Tycho Brahe

• Then, in the late 1500s, the Danish astronomer
  Tycho Brahe provided evidence that supported
  Copernicus heliocentric theory.

• Brahe set up an astronomical observatory.

• Every night for years he carefully observed the
  sky, accumulating data about the movement of the
  stars and planets.

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Tycho Brahe(1546-1601)

• Danish astronomer
• Established an observatory to study heavenly
  bodies
• Accumulated a lot of data on planetary movements
• His tables of astronomical observation was used
  by Kepler to prove Copernicuss
• helio-centric hypothesis

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Brahe

• Believed that the development of astronomy relied
  on accurate observation
• Made lots of astronomical observation with the
  naked eye
• Built and calibrated numerous new instruments
  including
• Created a domicile and observatory which he
  called Uraniborg

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Johannes Kepler

• After Brahes death, his assistant, the German
  astronomer and mathematician Johannes Kepler,
  used Brahes data and calculated the orbits of
  the planets revolving around the sun.

• Keplers calculations supported Copernicus
  heliocentric theory.

• His calculations also showed that the planets
  moved in oval shaped orbits, and not perfect
  circles, as Ptolemy and Copernicus believed.

• Keplers finding helps explain the paths
  followed by man-made satellites today.

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Johannes Kepler (1571-1630)

• Student of mathematics and astronomy
• studied with Tycho Brahe
• tested hypothesis after hypothesis until he
  determined that planets move in ellipses
• Three Laws of Planetary Motion
• planets move in ellipses with sun as one focus
• velocity of a planet is not uniform
• equal area of the plane is covered in equal time
  by the planets.

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Johannes Kepler(1571-1630)

• Built on the detailed observations of Tycho
  Brahe.
• Confirmed Copernicuss heliocentric theory
• Worked out the laws that governed planetary
  motion.
• Discovered that orbits were elliptical, not
  circular.
• Killed off the Ptolemaic theory of crystalline
  spheres and a perfect heaven.
• Opens the door to the question of what the
  planets and stars are made of and what governs
  their motion.

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Johannes Kepler(1571-1630)

• Used Brahes work to successfully prove
  Copernicuss helio-centric model mathematically
• However, he disproved Brahes claim that planets
  move in circular motion found that they move in
  ellipses
• Discovered that the speed of planets increase as
  they near the sun and decrease as they go away
  from it
• Discovered three laws of planetary motion
• the planets orbit the sun in elliptical orbits
  the sun is at one focus of the ellipse
• An imaginary line drawn from the center of the
  sun to the center of a planet will sweep out
  equal areas in equal intervals of time
• The ratio of the squares of the periods of any
  two planets is equal to he ratio of the cubes of
  their average distance from the sun
• Worked in optics, discovered two new regular
  polyhedra, created the first proof of logarithms,
  and created a way to find the volume of solids of
  revolution (which influenced calculus)
• Proof of logs based off of the work of Napier and
  Euclid

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Kepler Cont.

• Very religious (protestant) believed in
  Intelligent Design, and that God made the
  Universe according to a mathematical plan
• Math was considered a way to find truth, so
  Kepler thought that this gave man a way to find
  and understand the truth of the Universe
• Worked as an aide to Tycho Brahe and continued
  Brahes work and used it in his own work
• Established the idea of observational error

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Galileo Galilei

• Galileo Galilei was an Italian astronomer who
  built upon the scientific foundations laid by
  Copernicus and Kepler.

• Galileo assembled the first telescope which
  allowed him to see mountains on the moon and
  fiery spots on the sun.

• He also observed four moons rotating around
  Jupiter exactly the way Copernicus said the
  Earth rotated around the sun.

• Galileo also discovered that objects fall at the
  same speed regardless of weight.

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Galileo Galilei

• Galileos discoveries caused an uproar. Other
  scholars came against him because like
  Copernicus, Galileo was contradicting Ptolemy.

• The Church came against Galileo because it
  claimed that the Earth was fixed and unmoving.

• When threatened with death before the
  Inquisition in 1633, Galileo recanted his
  beliefs, even though he knew the Earth moved.

• Galileo was put under house arrest, and was not
  allowed to publish his ideas.

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The Scientific Method

• By the early 1600s, a new approach to science
  had emerged, known as the Scientific Method.

Scientific Method painstaking method used to
confirm findings and to prove or disprove a
hypothesis.

• Scientists observed nature, made hypotheses, or
  educated guesses, and then tested these
  hypotheses through experiments.

• Unlike earlier approaches, the scientific method
  did not rely on the classical thinkers or the
  Church, but depended upon a step-by-step process
  of observation and experimentation.

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The Scientific Method

1. State the problem
2. Collect information
3. Form a hypothesis
4. Test the hypothesis
5. Record analyze data
6. State a conclusion
7. Repeat steps 1 6

• Scientists soon discovered that the movements of
  bodies in nature closely followed what could be
  predicted by mathematics.

• The scientific method set Europe on the road to
  rapid technological progress.

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The Scientific Method
Newton

• Sir Isaac Newton was an English scholar who
  built upon the work of Copernicus and Galileo.

• Newton was the most influential scientist of the
  Scientific Revolution.

• He used math to prove the existence of gravity -
  a force that kept planets in their orbits around
  the sun, and also caused objects to fall towards
  the earth.

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The Scientific Method

• Newton published his scientific ideas in his
  book Mathematical Principles of Natural
  Philosophy.

Newton

• He discovered laws of light and color, and
  formulated the laws of motion

1. A body at rest stays at rest
2. Acceleration is caused by force
3. For every action there is an equal opposite
   reaction

• He invented calculus a method of mathematical
  analysis.

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The Scientific Method
According to a popular story, Newton saw an apple
fall from a tree, and wondered if the force that
pulled the apple to the Earth also controlled the
movement of the planets. Newton argued that
nature followed laws.
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The Scientific Method

• Francis Bacon was an English philosopher who
  wrote Advancement of Learning.

Francis Bacon

• Bacon popularized the scientific method and used
  it with philosophy and knowledge.

• Bacon argued that truth could not be known at
  the beginning of a question, but only at the end
  after a long process of investigation.

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The Scientific Method

• Descartes was a French scientist, mathematician,
  and philosopher.

René Descartes

• Descartes emphasized human reasoning as the best
  road to understanding.

• Like Bacon, Descartes also believed that truth
  was only found after a long process of studying
  and investigation.

I think, therefore I am
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Other Scientific Advances
Chemistry
Robert Boyle

• In the 1600s Robert Boyle distinguished between
  individual elements and chemical compounds.

• Boyle also explained the effect of temperature
  and pressure on gases.

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Robert Boyles first air pump
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Other Scientific Advances
Medicine
Andreas Vesalius

• In 1543 Andreas Vesalius published On the
  Structure of the Human Body.

• Vesalius book was the first accurate and
  detailed book on human anatomy.

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Drawings done by Vesalius
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Other Scientific Advances
Medicine
William Harvey

• An English scholar who described the circulation
  of blood for the first time.

• He showed how the heart served as a pump to force
  blood through veins and arteries.

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• Venal valves had already been discovered, but
  here Harvey shows that venal blood flows only
  toward the heart. He ligatured an arm to make
  obvious the veins and their valves, then pressed
  blood away from the heart and showed that the
  vein would remain empty because it was blocked by
  the valve.

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Other Scientific Advances
Medicine
Ambroise Paré

• French physician Ambroise Paré developed a new
  and more effective ointment for preventing
  infection.

• Paré also developed a technique for closing
  wounds with stitches.

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Other Scientific Advances
Medicine
Anton von Leeuwenhoek

• A Dutch inventor who perfected the microscope
  and became the first human to see cells and
  microorganisms.

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