Introspection: His use of introspection was experimental in the following sense 4 rules:

1

• Introspection His use of introspection was
  experimental in the following sense- 4 rules
• Observers need to say when the process is to be
  introduced
• They must be in strained attention
• It must be possible to replicate the observation
• One must be able to vary the stimuli (i.e.,
  Experimental principle)
• In most cases such introspection was confined to
  simple tasks (e.g., judgments of weight, size,
  intensity, etc., ) Yet also more qualitative
  introspections (e.g., pleasantness of a
  stimulus).
• Elements of Conscious Experience By
  introspection on metronome clicks he found that
  different pace/level of sound produced different
  levels of
• Agreeable-disagreeable (i.e, Pleasant
  Unpleasant)
• Tense-Calm (i.e., Tense-Relax)
• Excitement-Depression (i.e., Active-Passive)
• Suggested that any human emotion can placed on
  these three (e.g., sadness different from
  depression on passivity

2

• Apperception We do not view the parts of a
  tree, but the tree. The organizing process is
  such that every psychic compound has
  characteristics which are by no means the mere
  sum of the characteristics of the elements
  (1896). Preceded Gestalt by 20-30 years.
• Apperception is the process of creative synthesis
  that creates psychological entities which are
  different than its parts (also in chemistry the
  compound has additional qualities to that of its
  elements).

3
Some Research in Wundts Lab

• Reaction Time
• Simple vs. Complex (Perception vs. Perception
  Apperception comparing, deciding, etc.,- )
• Measuring Apperception by the Subtraction Method
• When we focus on the response- Longer Reaction
  Time than when we focus on the Stimulus. WHY?-
  Because in the former case there is apperception
  (cognitive processes of perceiving interpreting
  deciding)
• Catell noticed that there is a normal
  distribution of peoples performance on RT tasks.
  Thought that this must be connected to a general
  mental preparedness towards the world which is
  the precursor to intelligence. THEREFORE Measure
  intelligence by
• Same RT to E,A,T as to EAT. We perceive wholes.
  Difference in RT between E and W (due to
  frequency).

4

• Beyond Experimental Psychology
• In the early 1900s published 10 volumes on
  Volkpsychologie (language, culture, myths)
• Called for 2 psychologies The experimental would
  address simple processes the more complex
  processes would be studied non-experimentally.
• Checking the citations to his work (in the
  1990s) Only 5 address Volkpsychologie

5

• A few comments on WUndtian psychology
• WUndts importance is in the genius and
  dedication that was at the background of creating
  a mood that enabled the separation of Psychology
  from Philosophy and its establishment as an
  empirical science.
• In Germany it did not catch on because
• Psychology was seen as part of Philosophy until
  1941
• It was challenged by 2 other developments in the
  German speaking world Gestalt and
  Psychoanalysis.
• The 1st world war and the economic ruin that
  followed did not allow the necessary investments
  to maintain and develop empirical psychology

6

• In the English speaking world it did not fare
  well because
• The accusations that Wundt made some comments
  blaming England for the outbreak of WW I, and
  claiming that Germanys invasion of Belgium was
  self-defense
• Wundtian psychology has no concern with real
  world contributions. Something that was not
  consistent with the American Zeitgeist of the day
  (especially around WW I and the Economic
  difficulties that followed).
• BUT Much of the developments in 20th scientific
  psychology are nourished by the methods and
  experimental philosophy of Wundtian psychology,
  and represents a rebellion against some
  limitations that Wundtian psychology placed on
  the field. Thus Much of the development is due
  to the arguments with Wundtian concepts and
  suggestions.

7
Some other important ideas and methods that
shaped Psychology

• Franz Bertano 1838-19170
• Psychology must not be Wundtian- It must focus on
  processes and dynamics of conscious life
  (influence on Freud).
• Shared with WUndt the scientific view of
  Psychology. But his emphasis was on observation
  rather than experimentation. He called for an
  empirical psychology but much broader than
  Wundts.
• Called for the study of psychological processes
  (the psychological experience as distinguished
  from the sensory experience) through the use of
  imagination and memory.

8

• Hermann Ebbinghaus (1850-1901)
• Began the experimental study of learning and
  memory by developing the method of Nonsense
  syllables.
• Curve of forgetting

9
The making of Experimental Psychology in America
Edward Bratford Titchner (1867-1927)

• Born in England, went to study with Wundt, tried
  to establish Exp. Psych in Oxford- rejected-
  Psychology experimental???- Its part of
  philosophy
• Settled in Cornell, N.Y.
• Translated Wundts Principles of Physiological
  Psychology into English
• 1901-1905 Four volumes of Experimental
  Psychology .
• Even today a very important and definitive
  statement of experimental methods in Psychology

10

• Titchener in Cornell
• Very Autocratic Professor, could not tolerate
  disagreements (e.g., the way in which his
  affinity for cigars influenced his disciples).
• His attitude towards women On the one hand-
  delicate creatures that should not be in the same
  room with cigar smokers On the other- broke
  ground for women in the academic world. Third of
  his Ph.D. students (that later inhibited Psych
  departments all over North-America) were women.
• 1904 Established the Society for Titchener
  Experimentalists (his role in institutionalizing
  a discipline)

11

• Forgot Wundts interest in Apperception. His is
  the pure structuralism. Wanted to catalogue
  all elements of consciousness. In a book Primer
  of Psychology 44,000 such elements that need
  to be catalogued.
• Developed the Introspective method Trained
  people to avoid the Stimulus Error (e.g., red
  apple introspect of roundness redness
  dont mention apple a full moon in the sky
  introspect on light, etc., etc.,).
• People who do introspection in his lab are called
  Reagents (in Chemistry the substance you add to
  understand the elements of the compound). Says
  much about structuralism- The interest in people
  as conduits to the cataloguing process.
• Trained his Reagents to do some strange things
  Insert tube to study introspection of
  cold-hot liquids ask married students to
  introspect on sexual relations when being in the
  toilettes, etc., (Sorority mother forbade girls
  to approach the area of his lab in Cornell during
  darkness).

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• His main departure from Wundt- A complete
  disregard to processes of Apperception.
• What is consciousness The sum of conscious
  elements that are experienced at a given moment.
• Towards the end of his life began to doubt the
  scientific merit of structuralism
• Many scientific leaders seem to exhibit the same
  pattern Towards the end of life- Extending
  outlook, transmitting a more cautious and
  skeptical attitude (Penfield, Freud, James,
  Wundt,) WHY?...

13

• Why did not Structuralism flourish?
• Main reason The problem with Introspection as an
  experimental method
• The process of introspection changes the
  conscious experience (Immanuel Kant already noted
  that- according to him this is why Psychology
  will never be able to be a science)
• When trying to avoid the stimulus error one
  does away with the use of language and actually
  forces the Reagents to form a new
  structuralist-introspectionist language.
• Isnt all introspections retrospections?
• Mostly A sterile, not terribly interesting
  knowledge that does not contribute much to
  understanding of human experience.

14
Functionalism What does behavior contribute to?

• The function of psychology is to ask the question
  of adjustment and coping. What function does a
  behavior fulfill for coping in a particular
  environment? What is it good for? How does it
  contribute to people?
• More lively and interesting psychology than
  structuralism which tried to catalogue
  consciousness
• Influenced much by Darwinism

15

• William James (1842-1910)
• Life
• Born to a well to do family Grandfather made
  familys fortune in the Eerie Canal development
  and the railroad companies of the day Traveled
  much with family in Europe Father suffered a
  major crisis in his early 30s (deep depression)
  and was able to get out of it only by adopting
  some strange philosophies of life Brother is the
  author Henry James William himself a gifted
  writer.
• Began by deep interest in arts, moved to
  interests in Chemistry and ended up by finishing
  medical school.
• In 1865 (influenced by Darwins discoveries
  joined Agasis to an expedition in Brazil).
• Returned to the US (suffered from severe sea
  sickness) and then to Europe where he visited
  Helmholz lab in Heidelberg.
• There he met a young researcher named Wundt who
  was doing curious but not terribly interesting
  things like measuring Reaction time.

16

• Returned to the USA- Boston- and in 1870 suffered
  a deep depression. He writes
• Lost in a state of philosophical pessimism and
  general depression about my prospects
• I went into a dressing room in the twilight to
  procure some article that was there, when
  suddenly just as if it came out of darkness, the
  horrible fear of my existence fell upon me
  without any warning
• How did he emerge from this depressive episode?
  By developing and using the concepts of Habit and
  Free Will. made these concepts functional for
  himself in curing him
• On free will he writesI will assume for the
  present that it is no illusion that there I have
  free will my first act of free will, will be to
  believe in free will
• By this James tell us that people can control
  their world by exercising free will. Regardless
  of whether or not free will really exists, we can
  will it to exist and thereby use it for our
  better coping.

17

• The second concept is Habit (borrowed from
  Baines philosophy)
• The road to change passes through the adoption of
  new behaviors.
• If you want to change your psychology- Change
  your habits/behavior first.
• Force upon yourself new habits and your
  psychology will change.
• Only after a period of forceful compliance to a
  new habit, it becomes ingrained and you can
  loosen your guard. Then the danger looms. Any
  slight relapse threatens the whole achievement.
  (e.g., smoking losing weight)
• Every gain on the wrong side undoes the effect
  of many conquests on the right.
• This is a model of a person who controls her
  fate. Consciousness can force itself on the world
  we live in. The model returned after 60-70 years
  of absence (during the hay day of behaviorism).

18

• Another important concept is pragmatism. (this
  was also a philosophical school that James
  developed with his friend Pierce).
• Psychology is not the ultimate and single truth
  about human behavior. When its pragmatic to use
  it- then it is what we should do. But Art,
  literature, theatre are other no less valid
  sources of knowledge about the human experience.
  This reflects James basic modesty and humanity.
• Wundt on the other hand saw Psychology as the
  Ultimate Knowledge. To him psychology,
  experimentation and introspection was the only
  source of knowledge.

19

• In 1872 after the resolution of his depressive
  crisis he began to teach in Harvard Introduction
  to Psychology, and in 1878 began writing a
  textbook that appeared in 1890 (1400 pp.) titled
  Principles of Psychology. It is brilliant and
  makes an illuminating reading even today. BUT,
  James writes about it
• no one could be more disgusted than I at the
  sight of the book
• No subject is worth being treated in 1400 pp.,
  Had I 10 years more I could re-write it in 500
  pp. but as it stands it is either this bloated
  mess or nothing testifies to two facts. First
  that there in no such thing as the science of
  psychologysecond that William James is
  incapable.
• A very unique teacher The story with Gertrude
  Stein.

20

• Disliked Wundtian Psychology, and Wundt himself.
• WUndt aims at being the Napoleon of the
  intellectual world, unfortunately he will never
  for he is a Naploeon without a genius and with
  no central idea. Cut him up like a worm and each
  fragment crawls, there is no vital center in his
  system. You cant kill it because there is no
  vital center.
• WundtS structuralism is a fragmented psychology
  that does not add up to a unified statement.
• James psychology is more lively and holistic. He
  developed the concept of Self as the constant
  thing within us that makes us humans.