Chapter 1 Introducing Psychology and Research Methods

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Chapter 1Introducing Psychology and Research
Methods
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What Is Psychology?

• Psychology
• Psyche Mind
• Logos Knowledge or study
• Definition The scientific study of behavior and
  mental processes
• Behavior Overt i.e., can be directly observed
  (crying)
• Mental Processes Covert i.e., cannot be
  directly observed (remembering) private,
  internal
• Empirical Evidence Information gathered from
  direct observation

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What Might a Psychologist Research?

• Development Course of human growth and
  development
• Learning How and why it occurs in humans and
  animals
• Personality Traits, motivations, and individual
  differences
• Sensation and Perception How we come to know the
  world through our five senses

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What Might a Psychologist Research?(contd)

• Social Human and social behavior
• Cultural How culture affects human behavior
• Cognitive How reasoning, problem solving, and
  other mental processes relate to human behavior
• Evolutionary How our behavior is guided by
  patterns that evolved during human history

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Figure 1.3a
FIGURE 1.3 (a) Specialties in psychology.
Percentages are approximate. Any particular
psychologist might do several of these activities
during a work week (APA, 1998). As you can see,
most psychologists specialize in applied areas
and work in applied settings.
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Figure 1.3b
FIGURE 1.3. (b) Where psychologists work. Any
particular psychologist might do several of these
activities during a work week (APA, 1998). As you
can see, most psychologists specialize in applied
areas and work in applied settings.
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Figure 1.3c
FIGURE 1.3 (c) This chart shows the main
activities psychologists do at work. Any
particular psychologist might do several of these
activities during a work week (APA, 1998). As you
can see, most psychologists specialize in applied
areas and work in applied settings.
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What Are the Goals of Psychology?

• Description of Behaviors Naming and classifying
  various observable, measurable behaviors
• Understanding The causes of behavior(s)
• Prediction Forecasting behavior accurately
• Control Altering conditions that influence
  behaviors
• Positive Use To control unwanted behaviors,
  (e.g., smoking, tantrums, etc.)
• Negative Use To control peoples behaviors
  without their knowledge

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Table 1.1
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History of Psychology (Brief!) Beginnings

• Wilhelm Wundt Father of Psychology
• 1879 Set up first lab to study conscious
  experience
• Stimulus Any physical energy that affects the
  person and provokes a response
• Introspection Looking inward (i.e., examining
  and reporting your thoughts, feelings, etc.)
• Wundts ideas brought to the U.S. by Tichener and
  renamed Structuralism
• Structuralists disagreed, and no way to prove who
  was correct!

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History of Psychology William James

• William James (American) and Functionalism
• How the mind functions to help us adapt to our
  environment
• Functionalists admired Darwin and his theory of
  Natural Selection Animals keep features through
  evolution that help them adapt to environments

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History of Psychology Behaviorism and Cognitive
Behaviorism

• Behaviorism Watson and Skinner
• Psychology must study observable behavior
  objectively
• Watson studied Little Albert with Rosalie Raynor
  Skinner studied animals almost exclusively
• Cognitive Study thoughts, memory, expectations,
  perceptions, and other mental processes
• Cognitive Behaviorism Ellis and Bandura
• Our thoughts influence our behaviors used often
  in treatment of depression

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History of Psychology Gestalt

• The whole is greater than the sum of its parts.
  
• Key names Wertheimer, Perls

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Figure 1.2
FIGURE 1.2 The design you see here is entirely
made up of broken circles. However, as the
Gestalt psychologists discovered, our perceptions
have a powerful tendency to form meaningful
patterns. Because of this tendency, you will
probably see a triangle in this design, even
though it is only an illusion. Your whole
perceptual experience exceeds the sum of its
parts.
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History of Psychology Freud

• Psychoanalytic Freud
• Our behavior is largely influenced by our
  unconscious wishes, thoughts, and desires,
  especially sex and aggression.
• Freud performed dream analysis and was an
  interactionist (combination of our biology and
  environment make us who we are).
• Recent research has hypothesized that our
  unconscious mind is partially responsible for our
  behaviors.
• Repression Unconscious thoughts held out of
  awareness because they are threatening
• All thoughts and actions are determined nothing
  is an accident

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History of Psychology Humanism

• Humanism Rogers and Maslow
• Goal of psychology is to study unique aspects of
  the person focuses on subjective human
  experience.
• Each person has innate goodness and is able to
  make free choices (contrast with Skinner and
  Freud).
• Maslow Self-actualization Develop ones full
  potential and become the best person you can be

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Psychology Today

• Biopsychology Our behavior can be explained
  through physiological processes
• Uses brain scans to gather data (CT, MRI, PET)
• Looks at neurotransmitters
• Treats psychological problems with medications
• Positive Psychology Study of human strengths,
  virtues, and optimal behavior

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Cultural Awareness

• Many thoughts and behaviors are influenced by our
  culture.
• Psychologists need to be aware of the impact
  cultural diversity may have on our behaviors.
• What is acceptable in one culture might be
  unacceptable in another.
• Cultural Relativity Behavior must be judged
  relative to the values of the culture in which it
  occurs.
• Social Norms Rules that define acceptable and
  expected behavior for members of various groups.

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Table 1.3
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Many Flavors of Psychologists

• Psychologists Usually have masters or doctorate.
  Trained in methods, knowledge, and theories of
  psychology.
• Clinical Psychologists Treat psychological
  problems or do research on therapies and mental
  illnesses
• Counseling Psychologists Treat milder problems,
  such as poor adjustment at work or at a school
• Psychiatrists MD usually use medications to
  treat problems. Generally do not have extensive
  training in providing talk therapy.

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Many Flavors of Psychologists (contd)

• Psychoanalysts Receive additional Freudian
  psychoanalytic training post-Ph.D. or M.D. at an
  institute.
• Counselors Advisers who help solve problems with
  marriage, career, school, or work
• Psychiatric Social Workers Many have masters
  degrees and perform psychotherapy.
• Use social science principles.
• Presently a very popular profession.
• Not all psychologists perform therapy!

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The Scientific Method

• Six Basic Elements
• Observing
• Defining a problem
• Proposing a hypothesis (an educated guess that
  can be tested)
• Gathering evidence/testing the hypothesis
• Publishing results
• Building a theory

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Some Terms

• Hypothesis Testable hunch or educated guess
  about behavior
• Operational Definition States exact procedures
  used to represent a concept. Allows abstract
  ideas to be tested in real-world terms.

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Figure 1.4
FIGURE 1.4 Operational definitions are used to
link concepts with concrete observations. Do you
think the examples given are reasonable
operational definitions of frustration and
aggression? Operational definitions vary in how
well they represent concepts. For this reason,
many different experiments may be necessary to
draw clear conclusions about hypothesized
relationships in psychology.
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Naturalistic Observation

• Observing a person or an animal in the
  environment in which they/it live(s)
• Problems
• Observer Effect Changes in a subjects behavior
  caused by an awareness of being observed
• Observer Bias Occurs when observers see what
  they expect to see or record only selected
  details
• Anthropomorphic Error Attributing human
  thoughts, feelings, or motives to animals,
  especially as a way of explaining their behavior
  (e.g., Anya my cat is acting like that because
  shes feeling depressed today.)

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Figure 1.5
FIGURE 1.5 Psychologists use the logic of science
to answer questions about behavior. Specific
hypotheses can be tested in a variety of ways,
including naturalistic observation, correlational
studies, controlled experiments, clinical
studies, and the survey method. Psychologists
revise their theories to reflect the evidence
they gather. New or revised theories then lead to
new observations, problems, and hypotheses.
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Correlations and Relationships

• Definition Existence of a consistent, systematic
  relationship between two events, measures, or
  variables.
• Coefficient of Correlation Statistic ranging
  from 1.00 to 1.00 the sign indicates the
  direction of the relationship.
• Closer the statistic is to 1.00 or to 1.00, the
  stronger the relationship.
• Correlation of 0.00 demonstrates no relationship
  between the variables.

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Correlations and Relationships (contd)

• Positive Correlation Increases in one variable
  are matched by increases in the other variable.
• Negative Correlation Increases in one variable
  are matched by decreases in the other variable.
• Correlation does not demonstrate causation Just
  because two variables are related does NOT mean
  that one variable causes the other to occur.

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Figure 1.7
FIGURE 1.7 The correlation coefficient tells how
strongly two measures are related. These graphs
show a range of relationships between two
measures, A and B. If a correlation is negative,
increases in one measure are associated with
decreases in the other. (As B gets larger, A gets
smaller.) In a positive correlation, increases in
one measure are associated with increases in the
other. (As B gets larger, A gets larger.) The
center-left graph (medium negative
relationship) might result from comparing
anxiety level (B) with test scores (A) Higher
anxiety is associated with lower scores. The
center graph (no relationship) would result
from plotting a persons shoe size (B) and his or
her IQ (A). The center-right graph (medium
positive relationship) could be a plot of grades
in high school (B) and grades in college (A) for
a group of students Higher grades in high school
are associated with higher grades in college.
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Experiments

• To identify cause-and-effect relationships, we
  conduct experiments.
• A formal trial to confirm/disconfirm a hypothesis
• Directly vary a condition you might think affects
  behavior.
• Create two or more groups of subjects, alike in
  all ways except the condition you are varying.
• Record whether varying the condition has any
  effect on behavior.

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Figure 1.1
FIGURE 1.1 Results of an empirical study. The
graph shows that horn honking by frustrated
motorists becomes more likely as air temperature
increases. This suggests that physical discomfort
is associated with interpersonal hostility. (Data
from Kenrick MacFarlane, 1986.)
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Variables

• Definition Any condition that can change and
  that might affect the outcome of an experiment
• Independent Variable Condition(s) altered by the
  experimenter experimenter sets their size,
  amount, or value. These are suspected causes for
  behavioral differences.
• Dependent Variable Demonstrates results of the
  experiment. Condition is affected by independent
  variable.
• Extraneous Variables Conditions that a
  researcher wants to prevent from affecting the
  outcomes of the experiment (e.g., number of hours
  slept before the experiment).

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Figure 1.8
FIGURE 1.8 Elements of a simple psychological
experiment to assess the effects of music during
study on test scores.
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Groups

• Experimental Group The group of subjects that
  gets the independent variable.
• Control Group The group of subjects that does
  NOT get the independent variable.
• Random Assignment Subject has an equal chance of
  being in either the experimental or control
  group.

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Figure 1.9
FIGURE 1.9 Experimental control is achieved by
balancing extraneous variables for the
experimental group and the control group. For
example, the average age (A), education (B), and
intelligence (C) of group members could be made
the same for both groups. Then we could apply the
independent variable to the experimental group.
If their behavior (the dependent variable)
changes (in comparison with the control group),
the change must be caused by the independent
variable.
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Placebo Effects

• Definition A fake pill (sugar) or injection
  (saline)
• Placebo Effect Changes in behavior that result
  from expectations that a drug or other treatment
  will have some effect the belief that one has
  taken an active drug

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Experiment Types

• Single Blind Only the subjects have no idea
  whether they are in the experimental or control
  group
• Double Blind The subjects AND the experimenters
  have no idea whether the subjects are in the
  control or experimental group
• Best type of experiment if properly set up

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Experimenter Effects

• Definition Changes in behavior caused by the
  unintended influence of the experimenter
• Self-Fulfilling Prophecy A prediction that leads
  people to act in ways to make the prediction come
  true

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The Clinical Method

• Case Study In-depth focus of all aspects of a
  single subject
• Natural Clinical Tests Natural events, such as
  accidents, that provide psychological data

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Figure 1.10
FIGURE 1.10 Some of the earliest information on
the effects of damage to frontal areas of the
brain came from a case study of the accidental
injury of Phineas Gage.
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The Survey Method

• Definition Using public polling techniques to
  answer psychological questions
• Representative Sample Small group that
  accurately reflects a larger population
• Population Entire group of animals or people
  belonging to a particular category (e.g., all
  married women)
• Courtesy Bias Problem in research a tendency to
  give polite or socially desirable answers

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Figure 1.11
FIGURE 1.11 If you were conducting a survey in
which a persons height might be an important
variable, the non-random sample would be very
unrepresentative. The random sample, selected
using a table of random numbers, better
represents the group as a whole.
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Critical Thinking

• Ability to analyze, evaluate, compare, critique,
  and synthesize information
• Based on four principles
• Few truths transcend the need for empirical
  testing
• Judging the quality of evidence is crucial
• Authority or claimed expertise does not
  automatically make an idea true
• Critical thinking requires an open mind

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How to Critically Evaluate New Information

• Ask the following
• What claims are being made?
• What test (if any) of these claims has been made?
• Who did the test how good is the evidence?
• What was the nature and quality of the tests?
  Are they credible and can they be repeated?
• How reliable and trustworthy were the
  investigators?
• How much credibility can the claim be given?

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Pseudo-Psychologies

• Pseudo means false. Any unfounded system
  that resembles psychology and is NOT based on
  scientific testing
• Palmistry Lines on your hands (palms) predict
  future and reveal personality
• Phrenology Personality traits revealed by shape
  of skull and bumps on your head

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Pseudo-Psychologies (contd)

• Graphology Personality revealed by your
  handwriting.
• Astrology The positions of the stars and planets
  at birth determine your personality and affect
  your behavior.
• Extremely popular today (Whats your sign?).
• Uncritical Acceptance Tendency to believe
  positive or flattering descriptions of yourself

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Pseudo-Psychologies Concluded

• Fallacy of Positive Instances When we remember
  or notice things that confirm our expectations
  and forget the rest.
• Barnum Effect Always have a little something
  for everyone. Make sure all palm readings,
  horoscopes, etc. are so general that something in
  them will always apply to any one person!
• (e.g., Crossing Over with John Edward)

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Separating Fact from Fiction

• Be skeptical.
• Consider the source of information.
• Ask yourself, Was there a control group?
• Look for errors in distinguishing between
  correlation and causation (are claims based on
  correlational results yet passed off as
  causations?).

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Separating Fact from Fiction (contd)

• Be sure to distinguish between observation and
  inference (e.g., Robert is crying, but do we know
  why he is crying?).
• Beware of oversimplifications, especially those
  motivated by monetary reasons.
• For example is no proof, i.e., one example is
  not proof