AP PSYCHOLOGY Review for the AP Exam Chapter 1-4

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AP PSYCHOLOGYReview for the AP ExamChapter 1-4
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Psychology The science of behavior (what we do)
and mental processes (sensations, perceptions,
dreams, thoughts, beliefs, and feelings.)
At all levels, psychologists examine how we
process information--how we organize, interpret,
store, and use it.
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SCHOOLS OF PSYCHOLOGY Prologue
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Prologue Psychologys Roots

• Empiricism
• Knowledge comes from experience via the senses
• Science flourishes through observation and
  experiment

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Founding Psychologists
1) William Wundt (1879 Leipzig, Germany)
Founded the first formal laboratory devoted to
experimental psychology.
2) Hermann von Helmholtz physicist who conducted
simple experiments on perception and the nervous
system..the first to measure the speed of a
nerve impulse.
3) Herman Ebbinghaus 1885 published classic
studies on memory
4) G. Stanley Hall first psychology laboratory
in US (1883) at John Hopkins Univ..first
American Psychology Journal (1887).first
president of American Psychological Association
(1892)
5) Margaret Floy Washburn First woman to
receive PhD in Psychology (1894)
6) Francis Cecil Sumner first African-American
PhD in psychology
7) Mary Whiton Calkins first woman elected
president of APA, 1905
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Historical Schools
STRUCTURALISM using introspection, the
systematic examination by individuals of their
own thoughts and feelings about specific sensory
experiences. Emphasized the structure of the
mind and behavior.
Edward Titchener (Cornell University)
emphasized the what of mental illness rather
than why or how of thinking.
The major opponent to Stucturalism was
FUNCTIONALISM gives primary importance to
learned habits that enable organisms to adapt to
their environment and to function effectively.
What is the function or purpose of any
behavioral act?
John Dewey provided impetus for progressive
education.
William James study of consciousness was not
limited to elements, contents, and structures.
.the mind haS an ongoing relationship with the
environment. He published Principles of
Psychology 1890
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GESTALTISM The whole is greater than the sum of
its parts.
Max Wertheimer, Wolfgang Köhler, Kurt Koffka, and
Kurt Lewin
BIOLOGICAL the causes of behavior in the genes,
the brain, the nervous system, and endocrine
system the role of specific brain systems in
aggression by stimulating different regions and
then recording any destructive actions that are
elicited.
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BEHAVIORISM emphasizes observable behavior
rather than inner mental experiences
emphasizes the role of environment as the cause
of behavior. (From our environment, we learn to
do certain behaviors and learn not to do others.)
Sometimes called learning theory. .use of
positive reinforcement rather than punishment
B. F. Skinner radical behaviorism acknowledged
that evolution provided each species with a
repertory of behaviors.
John B.Watson observable behavior was important
stated the chief goal of psychology was the
prediction and control of behavior.
Ivan Pavlov classical conditioning.
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NEUROPHYSIOLOGY An approach which emphasizes
that all actions, feelings, and thoughts are
associated with bodily events such as the firing
of nerve cells in the brain or the release of
hormones
COGNITIVE refers to mental activity including
thinking, remembering, learning and using
language. Behavior is only partly determined
by preceding environmental events and past
behavioral consequences. People act because they
think.
Jerome Bruner developed a learning theory
based upon categorization
David Ausubel attempted to explain meaningful
verbal learning as a phenomenon of consciousness
rather than of behavior. Created the advance
organizer.
Jean Piaget identified stages of cognitive
development.
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PSYCHOANALYSIS An approach that emphasizes
unconscious motives and conflicts. A
psychodynamic psychologist will analyze
aggression as a reaction to frustrations caused
by barriers to pleasure, such as unjust
authority. They view aggression as an adults
displacement of hostility originally felt as a
child against his or her parents.
Sigmund Freud developed from his work with
mentally disturbed patients views a person as
being pushed and pulled by complex network of
inner and outer forces. Developed stages of life
to age 12, claiming that an individual would
change little after that point.
Erik Erikson expanded on Freuds stages of life
to include 8 stages into later adulthood.
Carl Jung challenged his mentor Freud with the
hypothesis that adulthood, not childhood,
represents the most significant phase of
psychology.
Bernice Neugarten focused on the difference
between chronological age and social age.
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HUMANISM emphasizes personal growth,
self-esteem, and the achievement of human
potential more than the scientific understanding,
prediction, and control of behavior. Human beings
are not driven by the powerful, instinctive
forces postulated by Freudians or manipulated by
environments. .look for personal values and
social conditions that foster self-limiting,
aggressive perspectives instead of
growth-enhancing, shared experiences.
Abraham Maslow developed the Hierarchy of
Needs, stating that each level of needs must be
satisfied before one moves onto the next.
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EVOLUTIONARY Seeks to connect contemporary
psychology to a central idea of the life
sciences, Charles Darwins theory of evolution by
natural selection. Researchers focus on the
environmental conditions in which the human brain
evolved. Those organisms best suited to their
environments will flourish and pass on genes more
successfully than those with poorer adaptations.
CULTURAL Study cross-cultural differences in
the causes and consequences of behavior.
Researchers may compare the prevalence of eating
disorders for white Americans vs. African
American teenagers within the U.S. Cultural
psychologists study the perceptions of the world
as affected by culture, the languages one speaks
and how it affects ones experience of the world,
or how does culture affect the way children
develop toward adulthood.
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Prologue Contemporary Psychology
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Prologue Contemporary Psychology
Psychologys Perspectives A lot depends on your
viewpoint
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Prologue Contemporary Psychology

• Psychologys Subfields
• Basic Research
• Biological psychologists explore the links
  between brain and mind
• Developmental psychologists study changing
  abilities from womb to tomb
• Cognitive psychologists study how we perceive,
  think, and solve problems
• Personality psychologists investigate our
  persistent traits
• Social psychologists explore how we view and
  affect one another

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Prologue Contemporary Psychology

• Psychiatry
• A branch of medicine dealing with psychological
  disorders
• Practiced by physicians who sometimes use medical
  (for example, drug) treatments as well as
  psychotherapy

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PSYCHOLOGICAL RESEARCH Chapter 1
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• Psychologists, like all scientists, use the
  scientific method to construct theories that
  organize observations and imply testable
  hypotheses

• Five Steps of the Scientific Method
• Developing a hypothesis
• 2) Performing a controlled test
• 3) Gathering objective data
• 4) Analyzing the result/Survival of Hypothesis
  (refine hypothesis and retest)
• 5) Publishing, criticizing and replicating the
  results

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Types of ResearchExperimental Method
Components of the Research Process 1) Developing
a research question 2) Surveying the
literature 3) Hypothesis 4) Independent
variable 5) Dependent variable 6) Extraneous
variables 7) Controls 8) Sampling/Subjects
(random assignment to groups)
9) Procedure 10) Results/Statistics 11)
Discussion 12) New Hypothesis
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Research Strategies--Step 1Developing a
Hypothesis

• Empirical Investigation
• collecting objective information firsthand by
  making careful measurements based on direct
  experience.
• Theory
• an explanation using an integrated set of
  principles that organizes and predicts
  observations
• Hypothesis
• a testable prediction
• often implied by a theory
• MUST be defined operationally

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Research Strategies--Step 1Developing a
Hypothesis

• Operational Definition
• a statement of procedures (operations) used to
  define research variables
• REQUIRED to make your suspicion testable
• You MUST describe
• independent variables
• dependent variable
• list of procedures
• Example-
• intelligence may be operationally defined as
  what an intelligence test measures

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Research Strategies--Step 2Performing a
Controlled Test

• Independent Variable
• the experimental factor that is manipulated
• the variable whose effect is being studied

Think of the independent variable as a condition
that the experimenter changes INDEPENDENTLY of
all the other controlled experimental conditions.
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Research Strategies--Step 3 Gathering Objective
Data
Dependent Variable the experimental factor that
may change in response to manipulations of the
independent variable in psychology it is
usually a behavior or mental process, or test.
The responses of the participants in an
experiment DEPEND directly on the conditions to
which they have been exposed.
the dependent variable must also be given an
operational definition.
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Research Strategies--Step 5Publishing,
Criticizing, Replicating the Results
Critics will look for flaws in the
research. REPLICATION is one way to see if one
would get the same results.
Replication repeating the essence of a
research study to see whether the basic finding
generalizes to other subjects and
circumstances usually with different subjects
in different situations
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• Types of Psychological Research
• 1) Experimental Method
• 2) Non-Experimental Methods (Descriptive Studies)
• 3) Correlational Studies
• Survey
• Naturalistic Observation
• Longitudinal Study
• Cross-Sectional Study
• Cohort-Sequential Study

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Advantages of Experimental Method cause-and-effec
t operationalization of variables stresses the
control of variables can implement double-blind
or blind procedures high internal validity may
be replicated
Disadvantages of Experimental Method reduce
external validity difficult to establish
adequate control conditions statistical
probability of bias
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Advantages of Case Study in-depth, detailed
information about the case opportunity to study
unusual cases time, money issues ethical
considerations
Disadvantages of Case Study results cannot be
generalized prone to inaccurate reporting from
source cannot be used to establish
cause-and-effect relationships biased researcher?
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Disadvantages of Correlation Study cannot
establish cause-and-effect prone to inaccurate
reporting hard to access the impact of
additional variables do not allow for the active
manipulation of variables.
Advantages of Correlation Study examine, test,
reveal, compare or describe relationship between
2 variables efficient, collect lots of
data make predictions dispel illusory
correlations utilize preexisting or archival data
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Illusory Correlation

• the perception of a relationship where none
  exists

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Research Strategies

• Three Possible Cause-Effect Relationships

could cause
Depression
(1) Low self-esteem
or
(2) Depression
Low self-esteem
could cause
or
Low self-esteem
(3) Distressing events or biological predispositio
n
could cause
and
Depression
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BIOLOGICAL (Neurophysiological) Chapter 2
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Neural Communication

• Neuron
• a nerve cell
• Dendrite
• the bushy, branching extensions of a neuron that
  receive messages and conduct impulses toward the
  cell body
• Axon
• the extension of a neuron, ending in branching
  terminal fibers, through which messages are sent
  to other neurons or to muscles or glands
• Myelin MY-uh-lin Sheath
• a layer of fatty cells segmentally encasing the
  fibers of many neurons
• enables vastly greater transmission speed of
  neutral impulses

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Neural Communication
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Neural Communication

• Action Potential
• a neural impulse a brief electrical charge that
  travels down an axon
• generated by the movement of positively charged
  atoms in and out of channels in the axons
  membrane
• Threshold
• the level of stimulation required to trigger a
  neural impulse

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Neural Communication

• Synapse SIN-aps
• junction between the axon tip of the sending
  neuron and the dendrite or cell body of the
  receiving neuron (synaptic gap)
• Neurotransmitters
• chemical messengers that traverse the synaptic
  gaps between neurons
• when released by the sending neuron,
  neuro-transmitters travel across the synapse and
  bind to receptor sites on the receiving neuron,
  thereby influencing whether it will generate a
  neural impulse

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Serotonin Pathways
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Neural Communication

• Acetylcholine ah-seat-el-KO-leen
• a neurotransmitter that, among its functions,
  triggers muscle contraction
• Endorphins en-DOR-fins
• morphine within
• natural, opiatelike neurotransmitters
• linked to pain control and to pleasure

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Neural Communication
EXAMPLES Neurotransmitters dopamine,
serotonin Agonists cocaine (increases dopamine
in synapse) Antagonist (blocks reuptake) curare
SSRI
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• PROBLEMS
• Serotonin Syndrome potentially
  life-threatening
• two drugs increase the level of serotonin at
  the same time. (ie) migraine medication
  (triptans) and antidepressants with SSRI
  (selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors)
• examples SSRI Celexa, Zoloft, Prozac,
  Zoloft, Paxil, and Lexapro. SNRI's include
  Cymbalta and Effexor
• examples Triptans mitrex, Zomig, Frova,
  Maxalt, Axert, Amerge, and Relpax
• Drugs of abuse, such as ecstasy and LSD have also
  been associated with serotonin syndrome.

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The ENDOCRINE SYTEM
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The Endocrine System

• Endocrine System
• the bodys slow chemical communication system
• a set of glands that secrete hormones into the
  bloodstream
• The Endocrine System is made up of tissues or
  organs called endocrine glands, which secrete
  chemicals directly into the bloodstream. The
  chemical messengers are called HORMONES.

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HYPOTHALAMUS (ADH and OXYTOCINSecretes
REGULATORY HORMONES) Primary link between
Endocrine and Nervous systems. PINEAL GLAND
(MELATONIN) PITUITARY GLAND Secretes seven
important hormones which REGULATE GROWTH
THYROID GLAND (TYROSINE, CALCITONIN) THYMUS (
thymosins ) Two lobes consists--outer CORTEX
and a central MEDULLA.
PARATHYROID GLANDS ( PARATHORMONE ) ADRENAL
GLANDS (CORTICOSTEROIDS, EPINEPHRINE
(adrenaline), NOREPINEPHRINE (noradrenaline))
Lie along the superior borders of the
kidneys. PANCREAS (GLUCAGON., INSULIN) GONADS
(TESTOSTERONE. ESTROGEN, PROGESTERONE)
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The NERVOUS SYSTEM
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The Nervous System

• Central Nervous System (CNS)
• the brain and spinal cord
• Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)
• the sensory and motor neurons that connect CNS to
  the rest of the body
• Nerves
• neural cables containing many axons
• part of the PNS
• connect the CNS with muscles, glands, and sense
  organs
• Sensory Neurons
• neurons that carry incoming information from the
  sense receptors to the CNS

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The Nervous System

• Interneurons
• CNS neurons that internally communicate and
  intervene between the sensory inputs and motor
  outputs
• Motor Neurons
• carry outgoing information from the CNS to
  muscles and glands
• Somatic Nervous System
• the division of the peripheral nervous system
  that controls the bodys skeletal muscles

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The Nervous System

• Autonomic Nervous System
• the part of the peripheral nervous system that
  controls the glands and the muscles of the
  internal organs (such as the heart)
• Sympathetic Nervous System
• division of the autonomic nervous system that
  arouses the body, mobilizing its energy in
  stressful situations
• Parasympathetic Nervous System
• division of the autonomic nervous system that
  calms the body, conserving its energy

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The Nervous System

• Reflex
• a simple, automatic, inborn response to a sensory
  stimulus

• Neural Networks
• interconnected neural cells
• with experience, networks can learn, as feedback
  strengthens or inhibits connections that produce
  certain results
• computer simulations of neural networks show
  analogous learning

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The BRAIN
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Brain Structures and their Functions
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• Lesion
• tissue destruction in the brain
• a brain lesion is a naturally or experimentally
  caused destruction of brain tissue

• Electroencephalogram (EEG)
• an amplified recording of the waves of electrical
  activity across the brains surface
• these waves are measured by electrodes placed on
  the scalp

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The Brain

• CT (computed tomography) Scan
• a series of x-ray photographs taken from
  different angles and combined by computer into a
  composite representation of a slice through the
  body also called CAT scan
• PET (positron emission tomography) Scan
• a visual display of brain activity that detects
  where a radioactive form of glucose goes while
  the brain performs a given task
• MRI (magnetic resonance imaging)
• a technique that uses magnetic fields and radio
  waves to produce computer-generated images that
  distinguish among different types of soft tissue
  allows us to see structures within the brain

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MRI Scan
Normal patient Schizophrenic patient
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The Brain

• Brainstem
• the oldest part and central core of the brain,
  beginning where the spinal cord swells as it
  enters the skull
• responsible for automatic survival functions
• Medulla muh-DUL-uh
• base of the brainstem
• controls heartbeat and breathing

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The Brain

• Reticular Formation
• a nerve network in the brainstem that plays an
  important role in controlling arousal
• Thalamus THAL-uh-muss
• the brains sensory switchboard, located on top
  of the brainstem
• it directs messages to the sensory receiving
  areas in the cortex and transmits replies to the
  cerebellum and medulla
• Cerebellum sehr-uh-BELL-um
• the little brain attached to the rear of the
  brainstem
• it helps coordinate voluntary movement and
  balance

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The Brain

• Limbic System
• a doughnut-shaped system of neural structures at
  the border of the brainstem and cerebral
  hemispheres
• associated with emotions such as fear and
  aggression and drives such as those for food and
  sex
• includes the hippocampus, amygdala, and
  hypothalamus.
• Amygdala ah-MIG-dah-la
• two almond-shaped neural clusters that are
  components of the limbic system and are linked to
  emotion
• Hypothalamus
• neural structure lying below (hypo) the thalamus
  directs several maintenance activities (eating,
  drinking, body temperature, sexual behavior)

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The Cerebral Cortex

• Cerebral Cortex
• the intricate fabric of interconnected neural
  cells that covers the cerebral hemispheres
• the bodys ultimate control and information
  processing center
• Glial Cells
• cells in the nervous system that support,
  nourish, and protect neurons

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The Cerebral Cortex

• Frontal Lobes
• involved in speaking and muscle movements and in
  making plans and judgments
• Parietal Lobes
• includes the sensory cortex
• Occipital Lobes
• include the visual areas, which receive visual
  information from the opposite visual field
• Temporal Lobes
• include the auditory areas

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The Cerebral Cortex

• Motor Cortex
• area at the rear of the frontal lobes that
  controls voluntary movements
• Sensory Cortex
• area at the front of the parietal lobes that
  registers and processes body sensations

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Association Areas

• More intelligent animals have increased
  uncommitted or association areas of the cortex

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The Cerebral Cortex

• Aphasia
• impairment of language, usually caused by left
  hemisphere damage either to Brocas area
  (impairing speaking) or to Wernickes area
  (impairing understanding)
• Brocas Area
• an area of the left frontal lobe that directs the
  muscle movements involved in speech
• Wernickes Area
• an area of the left temporal lobe involved in
  language comprehension and expression

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Specialization and Integration

• Brain activity when hearing, seeing, and speaking
  words

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• Plasticity
• the brains capacity for modification, as evident
  in brain reorganization following damage
  (especially in children) and in experiments on
  the effects of experience on brain development

• Corpus Callosum
• large band of neural fibers
• connects the two brain hemispheres
• carries messages between the hemispheres

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Split Brain

• a condition in which the two hemispheres of the
  brain are isolated by cutting the connecting
  fibers (mainly those of the corpus callosum)
  between them

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Right Brain vs. Left Brain Perception Spe
aking Spatial-relations Calculations Abstract
thought Speech Intuitive thought Songs
Writing Logic Analysis
Whole picture vs. Details Emotion vs. Co
ntent
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NATURE v. NURTURE Chapter 3
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Genes Our Biological Blueprint

• Chromosomes
• threadlike structures made of DNA that contain
  the genes
• All human cells contain the diploid number of
  chromosomes (46) consisting of 23 pairs of
  homologous chromosomes
• Two of this set are X and Y (the sex chromosomes)
  and the other 22 pairs are autosomes that guide
  the expression of other traits.

KARYOTYPE of a male The human haploid genome
contains 3,000,000,000 DNA nucleotide pairs,
divided among twenty two (22) pairs of autosomes
and one pair of sex chromosomes.
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Genes Our Biological Blueprint

• DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid)
• complex molecule containing the genetic
  information that makes up the chromosomes
• has two strands-forming a double helix- held
  together by bonds between pairs of nucleotides

• DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) Four major
  varieties of nitrogen-containing bases can
  contribute to nucleotide structure
• Adenine
• Guanine
• Cytosine
• Thymine

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Genetics and Behavior

• Genes
• biochemical units of heredity that make up the
  chromosomes
• a segment of DNA capable of synthesizing a
  protein
• Genome
• the complete instructions for making an organism
• consisting of all the genetic material in its
  chromosomes
• Represents two sets of genetic instructions--one
  from the egg and one from the sperm

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Evolutionary Psychology

• Natural Selection
• the principle that, among the range of inherited
  trait variations, those contributing to survival
  will most likely be passed on to succeeding
  generations
• Mutations
• random errors in gene replication that lead to a
  change in the sequence of nucleotides
• the source of all genetic diversity

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Behavior Genetics

• Identical Twins
• develop from a single zygote (fertilized egg)
  that splits in two, creating two genetic replicas
• Fraternal Twins
• develop from separate zygotes
• genetically no closer than brothers and sisters,
  but they share the fetal environment

Identical twins may have separate placentas and
blood flow, just like fraternal twins.
Two placental arrangements in identical twins
a) Splits early, about 5th day
b) Splits between 5th and 12th day, greater
mortality, greater abnormalities
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Eggs that split after the 12th day results in
conjoined twins.
Parapagus
Pygopagus
Thoracopagus
Parasite
Parapagus
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A little known (and very rare) genetic situation
results in the TETRAGAMETIC CHIMERISM. . .
someone who has at least two different genotypes
which each arose from an individual zygote and
eventually fused, when normally they would have
developed separately as twins.
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Behavior Genetics

• Temperament
• a persons characteristic emotional reactivity
  and intensity
• Heritability
• the proportion of variation among individuals
  that we can attribute to genes
• may vary, depending on the range of populations
  and environments studied
• Interaction
• the effect of one factor (such as environment)
  depends on another factor (such as heredity)
• Molecular Genetics
• the subfield of biology that studies the
  molecular structure and function of genes

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Environmental Influence

• Experience affects brain development

In 14 to 16 repetitions of this basic experiment,
the rats placed in the enriched environment
developed significantly more cerebral cortex.
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Environmental Influence

• Culture
• the enduring behaviors, ideas, attitudes, and
  traditions shared by a large group of people and
  transmitted from one generation to the next
• Norm
• an understood rule for accepted and expected
  behavior
• Personal Space
• the buffer zone we like to maintain around our
  bodies
• Memes
• self-replicating ideas, fashions, and innovation
  passed from person to person

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The Nature and Nurture of Gender

• X Chromosome
• the sex chromosome found in both men and women
• females have two males have one
• an X chromosome from each parent produces a
  female
• Y Chromosome
• the sex chromosome found only in men
• when paired with an X chromosome from the mother,
  it produces a male child

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The Nature and Nurture of Gender

• Testosterone
• the most important of the male sex hormones
• both males and females have it
• additional testosterone in males stimulates
• growth of male sex organs in the fetus
• development of male sex characteristics during
  puberty
• Role
• a set of expectations (norms) about a social
  position
• defining how those in the position ought to behave

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The Nature and Nurture of Gender

• Social Learning Theory
• theory that we learn social behavior by observing
  and imitating and by being rewarded or punished
• Gender Schema Theory
• theory that children learn from their cultures a
  concept of what it means to be male and female
  and that they adjust their behavior accordingly

• Gender Role
• a set of expected behaviors for males and females
• Gender Identity
• ones sense of being male or female
• Gender-typing
• the acquisition of a traditional masculine or
  feminine role

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The Nature and Nurture of Gender

• Two theories of gender typing

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DEVELOPMENT Chapter 4
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• Developmental Psychology
• a branch of psychology that studies physical,
  cognitive and social change throughout the life
  span

• Zygote
• the fertilized egg
• enters a 2 week period of rapid cell division
• develops into an embryo
• Embryo
• the developing human organism from 2 weeks
  through 2nd month
• Fetus
• the developing human organism from 9 weeks after
  conception to birth

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• Teratogens
• agents, such as chemicals and viruses, that can
  reach the embryo or fetus during prenatal
  development and cause harm (nuclear fallout, food
  allergies, medicine taken by mother during
  pregnancy, alcohol, drugs, et.al.)
• Fetal Alcohol Syndrome (FAS)
• physical and cognitive abnormalities in children
  caused by a pregnant womans heavy drinking.
• symptoms include facial misproportions

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The Newborn

• Rooting Reflex
• tendency to open mouth, and search for nipple
  when touched on the cheek
• Preferences
• human voices and faces
• facelike images--gt
• smell and sound of mother
• Babinsky Reflex
• tendency to grasp an object when when placed into
  their hands and lift them up by their clasped
  fists

Newborn Reflexes rooting reflex sucking
reflex grasping reflex swallowing
reflex startle (moro) reflex babinsky reflex
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The Newborn

• Habituation
• decreasing responsiveness with repeated
  stimulation
• newborns become bored with a repeated stimulus,
  but renew their attention to a slightly different
  stimulus

• Maturation
• biological growth processes that enable orderly
  changes in behavior
• relatively uninfluenced by experience
• sets the course for development while experience
  adjusts it

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Infancy and Childhood

• Babies only 3 months old can learn that kicking
  moves a mobile- and can retain that learning for
  a month (Rovee-Collier, 1989).

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Cognitive Development

• Cognition
• mental activities associated with thinking,
  knowing, and remembering
• Schema
• a concept or framework that organizes and
  interprets information

• Assimilation
• interpreting ones new experience in terms of
  ones existing schemas
• Accommodation
• adapting ones current understandings (schemas)
  to incorporate new information

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Piagets Stages of Cognitive Development
Jean Piaget (1896-1980)
Handout 4-4 and 4-11
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Infancy and Childhood Cognitive Development

• Object Permanence
• the awareness that things continue to exist even
  when not perceived (Piaget Sensorimotor)

• Conservation
• the principle that properties such as mass,
  volume, and number remain the same despite
  changes in the forms of objects (Piaget Concrete
  Operational)

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Cognitive Development

• Baby Mathematics
• Shown a numerically impossible outcome, infants
  stare longer (Wynn, 1992)

• Egocentrism
• the inability of the preoperational child to take
  anothers point of view (Piaget Preoperational)
• Theory of Mind
• peoples ideas about their own and others mental
  states- about their feelings, perceptions, and
  thoughts and the behavior these might predict
  (Piaget Preoperational)
• Autism
• a disorder that appears in childhood
• Marked by deficient communication, social
  interaction and understanding of others states
  of mind

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Born in Russia (Jewish) Law degree Unive of
Moscow PhD Literature Linguistics
Lev S. Vygotsky (1896-1934)
humans use various symbols and items that help
us to develop cultures we change, interact and
go through development within our
cultures higher?thinking skills depend on the
internalization of the items we used to develop
within our culture and communicate. used blocks
to distinguish children's mastery of the concept
from simple memorization His work was
suppressed by Marxist Russian authorities for
over 20 years after his death.

• SocioCultural Theory of Development
• FACETS (not stages)
• Private Speech talking to oneself
• Proximal Development is the level of development
  immediately above a person's present level to
  achieve maximum learning
• Scaffolding using hints and pointers from
  teachers, parents, and peers who have already
  grasped the desired concept, children are able to
  form their own path toward a solution

93
Vygotsky v. Piaget
Both Piaget and Vygotsky viewed pre-school
children in problem solving situations talking to
themselves. When Piaget labeled the self directed
behavior as egocentric and believed it only
minimum relevant to childrens cognitive growth,
Vygotsky referred to it as a private speech. He
argued that private speech grows out of the
childrens interaction with parents and other
adults and through such interactions, they begin
to use their parents instructional comments to
direct their own behavior.
REF http//starfsfolk.khi.is/solrunb/vygotsky.htm
94
Abnormal Development
PHENYLKETONURIA (PKU) a metabolic disorder that,
left untreated, results in mental retardation and
other problems. inability of the body to
utilize the essential amino acid, phenylalanine.
Amino acids are the building blocks for body
proteins. We get amino acids from food. In
classic PKU the enzyme that breaks down this
amino acid is completely deficient causing
phenylalanine to accumulate in the blood and body
tissues. high levels of phenylalanine can cause
significant brain problems.
symptoms include vomiting, irritability, rash,
mousy odor to the urine, nervous problems,
increased muscle tone, more active muscle tendon
reflexes. Later, severe brain problems occur,
mental retardation and seizures. Other features
include microcephaly (small head), prominent
cheek and upper jaw bones with widely spaced
teeth, poor development of tooth enamel and
decreased body growth.
95
PKU DIET
Resource http//depts.washington.edu/pku/diet.htm
l
96
Abnormal Development
TAY-SACHs DISEASE deterioration of the brain
of a one-year old child due to accumulation of
fat on the brain, caused by insufficient activity
of an enzyme called beta-hexosaminidase A that
catalyzes the biodegradation of acidic fatty
materials known as gangliosides. this child will
usually die before age 4 infants with this
disease appear to develop normally for first few
months of iife. symptoms deterioration of
mental physical abilities, blindness, deafness,
inability to swallow, seizures, dementia,
increased startle reflex, muscles atrophy and
paralysis sets in.
MONOSOMY X (TURNER SYNDROME) the only known
viable human monosomy (missing one chromosome)
1 in 5000 births XO phenotype female sex
organs do not mature at adolescence, and
secondary sex characteristics fail to
develop sterile and short no mental deficiency
97
Abnormal Development
ANDROGYNY having both female and male
characteristics HERMAPHRODITIC may be raised
as one sex or another as genetalia is
ambiguous failure to develop breasts,
milk-glands, child-bearing hips, no menses,
sterility, beard growth, male vocal chords,
TOURETTES SYNDROME neurological disorder which
becomes evident in early childhood or adolescence
before the age of 18 years. multiple motor and
vocal tics lasting for more than a
year. symptoms include involuntary movements of
the face, arms, limbs, or trunkfrequent,
repetitive and rapid..such as eye blink, nose
twitch, grimace. causal evidence points to
abnormal metabolism of at least one brain
neurotransmitter, dopamine.
98
Social Development

• Stranger Anxiety
• fear of strangers that infants commonly display
• beginning by about 8 months of age
• Attachment
• an emotional tie with another person
• shown in young children by seeking closeness to
  the caregiver and showing distress on separation

99
Mary Ainsworth (1979) observed mother-infant
pairs at home during their first 6 months.
Later, she observed 1 year old infants in strange
situations without their mothers. Sensitive-respon
sive mothers had infants who exhibited SECURE
ATTACHMENT. Insensitive-unresponsive
mothers--those who ignored their children at
times--had children who exhibited INSECURE
ATTACHMENT. She is known for her work in the
development of ATTACHMENT THEORY.
Placed in a strange situation, 60 of infants
display SECURE ATTACHMENT. They play comfortably
and explore their new environment. Others show
INSECURE ATTACHMENT. These infants cling to
their mother and are slow to explore their
surroundings.
100
Harry Harlow 1905 - 1981 1930, BA, PhD
Stanford Univ Faculty, Univ of
Wisconsin Worked with Abraham Maslow

• Harlows Surrogate Mother Experiments
• Monkeys preferred contact with the comfortable
  cloth mother, even while feeding from the
  nourishing wire mother

101
Social Development

• Monkeys raised by artificial mothers were
  terror-stricken when placed in strange situations
  without their surrogate mothers.

102
Konrad Lorenz (1903-1989)
From his initial analysis of imprinting, Lorenz
went on to identify the essential components of
innate behavior and developed the central
constructs of releasers and fixed action patterns
which serve as the foundation of the study of
animal behavior.

• Critical Period
• an optimal period shortly after birth when an
  organisms exposure to certain stimuli or
  experiences produces proper development
• Imprinting
• the process by which certain animals form
  attachments during a critical period very early
  in life
• Temperament
• a persons characteristic emotional reactivity
  and intensity

103
Social Development

• Basic Trust (Erik Erikson)
• a sense that the world is predictable and
  trustworthy
• said to be formed during infancy by appropriate
  experiences with responsive caregivers
• Self-Concept
• a sense of ones identity and personal worth

104
Social Development- Child-Rearing Practices
Studies by Stanley Coopersmith (1967), Diana
Baumrind (1996) and John Buri (1988) reveal that
children with the highest self-esteem,
self-reliance, and social competence usually have
warm, concerned, AUTHORITATIVE parents. Although
most studies are done with white middle-class
families, studies in other cultures with other
races in more than 200 cultures worldwide confirm
these findings.

• Authoritarian
• parents impose rules and expect obedience
• Dont interrupt
• Why? Because I said so.
• Authoritative
• parents are both demanding and responsive
• set rules, but explain reasons
• encourage discussion

• Permissive
• submit to childrens desires
• make few demands
• use little punishment
• Rejecting-neglecting
• disengaged
• expect little
• invest little

105
Social Development- Child-Rearing Practices

• Authoritarian
• ADVANTAGE little time
• DISADVANTAGE frail obedient children who may
  feel hopeless children may become rebellious and
  grow to have an insecure outlook on life.
• Authoritative
• ADVANTAGE children who talk and discuss,
  incorporate understanding children grow to be
  confident and trusting of the world.
• DISADVANTAGE takes time to explain and discuss

• Three explanations for correlation between
  authoritative parenting and social competence

106
Adolescence

• Adolescence
• the transition period from childhood to adulthood
• extending from puberty to independence
• Puberty
• the period of sexual maturation
• when one first becomes capable of reproduction

• Primary Sex Characteristics
• body structures that make sexual reproduction
  possible
• ovaries- female
• testes- male
• external genitalia
• Secondary Sex Characteristics
• nonreproductive sexual characteristics
• female- enlarged breasts, hips
• male- voice quality, body hair
• Menarche (meh-NAR-key)
• first menstrual period

107
The Heinz Dilemma
In a county in Europe, a poor man named Valjean
could find no work, nor could his sister and
brother. Without money, he stole food and
medicine that they needed. He was captured and
sentenced to prison for 6 years. After a couple
of years, he escaped from the prison and went to
live in another part of the country under a new
name. He saved money and slowly built up a
factory. He gave his workers the highest wages
and used most of his profits to build a hospital
for people who couldnt afford good medical care.
Twenty years had passed when a tailor recognized
the factory owner as being Valjean, the escaped
convict whom the police had been looking for back
in his hometown.
Should the tailor report Valjean to the
police? Why or why not?
108
Kohlbergs Moral Ladder

• As moral development progresses, the focus of
  concern moves from the self to the wider social
  world.

5. Although turning Valjean in may not be
perfectly just, leaving such decisions up to each
persons judgment would result in greater
injustice (Affirms agreed-upon rights)
Morality of abstract principles to
affirm agreed-upon rights and personal ethical
principles
Postconventional level
4. There has to be respect for the law (duty to
society/avoids dishonor or guilt)
Morality of law and social rules to
gain approval or avoid disapproval
Conventional level
3. If you dont report him, everyone will think
you are just as much a criminal (gains
approval/avoids disapproval)
Morality of self-interest to avoid punishment or
gain concrete rewards
2. The tailor may get a reward for turning in a
criminal. (gains/rewards)
Preconventional level
1. The tailor will be in trouble if he doesnt
tell the police. (avoid punishment)
109
NOTE the authors gave no Stage 6 response.
This is partly because none of the answers
reflected Stage 6 responses. Kohlberg and Colby
conclude that, the question of whether Stage 6
should be included as a natural psychological
stage will remain unresolved until research is
conducted with a special sample of people likely
to have developed beyond Stage 6.
At one time Kohlberg proposed a Stage 7, which
reflected a cosmic orientation in which one is
motivated to be true to universal principles and
feels oneself part of a cosmic direction
transcending social norms.
Lawrence Kohlberg 1927-1987 Harvard University
110
Eriksons Stages of Psychosocial Development
Erik Erikson Freudian ego-psychologist 1902-1994
111
Eriksons Stages of Psychosocial Development
112
In each stage, conflict arises between newly
emerging personality needs and social demands
and culminates in a crisis, not in the sense of a
catastrophe but rather represents a turning point
in development.
Erikson noted, however, that all the personality
components develop to some extent throughout
life, even before their critical stages.
To some extent, they may develop in parallel and
are interdependent even before the relevant
crises are resolved.
113
Social Development

• Identity
• ones sense of self
• the adolescents task is to solidify a sense of
  self by testing and integrating various roles
• Intimacy
• the ability to form close, loving relationships
• a primary developmental task in late adolescence
  and early adulthood

114
ADULTHOOD
Consider, friend, as you pass by, as you are
now, so once was I. As I am now, you too shall
be. Prepare, therefore, to follow
me. --Scottish tombstone epitaph
115
Adulthood- Physical Changes

• Menopause
• the time of natural cessation of menstruation
• also refers to the biological changes a woman
  experiences as her ability to reproduce declines
• Alzheimers Disease
• a progressive and irreversible brain disorder
• characterized by a gradual deterioration of
  memory, reasoning, language, and finally,
  physical functioning

116
Adulthood- Cognitive Changes
Reasoning ability score

• Cross-Sectional Study
• a study in which people of different ages are
  compared with one another
• Longitudinal Study
• a study in which the same people are restudied
  and retested over a long period

60
55
50
45
40
35
25
32
39
46
53
60
74
67
81
Age in years
Cross-sectional method
Longitudinal method
117
Adulthood- Cognitive Changes

• Verbal intelligence scores hold steady with age,
  while nonverbal intelligence scores decline
  (adapted from Kaufman others, 1989).

Intelligence (IQ) score
105
100
95
90
85
80
75
20
35
55
70
25
45
65
Age group
118
Adulthood- Cognitive Changes

• Crystallized Intelligence
• ones accumulated knowledge and verbal skills
• tends to increase with age
• Fluid Intelligence
• ones ability to reason speedily and abstractly
• tends to decrease during late adulthood

119
The stages Kubler-Ross identified are Denial
(this isn't happening to me!) Anger (why is
this happening to me?) Bargaining (I promise
I'll be a better person if...) Depression (I
don't care anymore) Acceptance (I'm ready for
whatever comes) Many people believe that these
stages of grief are also experienced by people
who have lost a loved one.
Many people have tried to explain what grief is
some have even identified certain stages of
grief.Probably the most well-known of these might
be from Elizabeth Kubler-Ross' book, "On Death
and Dying."