Motivation in Organizations

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Chapter-4

• Motivation in Organizations

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Motivation

• a set of processes that arouse, direct and
  maintain human behaviour toward attaining some
  goal

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Components (fig 4.2)

• Arousal- drive or energy behind our actions
• Direction-choices that we make in pursuing some
  goal
• Maintaining- conditions that suggest continuance
  of our actions

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Key points

• Motivation and job performance are not
  synonymous-motivation is one of the several
  determinants of performance
• Motivation is multifaceted-several motives may be
  operative at the same time
• People are motivated by more than just
  money-goals, other than financial goals, are
  operative at work

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Maslows Hierarchy of needs

• Theory specifying that there are five human
  needs that are arranged so that lower level, more
  basic needs must be satisfied before higher level
  needs become activated(p137)

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Maslows Hierarchy of Needs

• Deficiency needs- If these needs are not met
  people will not develop either physically or
  psychologically
• Physiological Needs- biological drives such as
  the need for food, air, water and shelter.
• Safety Needs- need for a secure environment, free
  from threats of physical or psychological harm
• Social Needs-needs to be affliative,I.e., to have
  friends and to be loved and accepted by other
  people

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Maslows theory(continued)

• Growth Needs- gratification of these needs helps
  a person to reach her/his full potential
• Esteem Needs- need to develop self-respect and to
  gain the approval of others.
• Self-actualization needs- need to discover who we
  are and to develop ourselves to our fullest
  potential

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Maslows Theory

• Evaluation of the Theory- This theory has not
  received much empirical support
• other research has failed to confirm that there
  are five categories of needs
• needs do not have to be satisfied in the order
  prescribed in the hierarchy

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Alderfers theory

• Asserts that there are three basic human needs
  that are not necessarily activated in any
  specific order
• Existence needs- correspond to Maslows
  physiological and safety needs
• Relatedness needs- correspond to Maslows social
  needs
• Growth needs- corresponds to Maslow's esteem and
  self actualization needs
• Evaluation- fits better with research evidence

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Managerial Applications of Need Theory

• Makes sense to help people satisfy their
  needs, especially if self actualization will
  bring about greater creativity on the job

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Managerial Applications of Need Theory

• Promote a healthy work force- satisfy employees
  physiological needs by providing incentives for
  mental and physical health
• Provide financial security- an important safety
  need
• go beyond traditional forms of compensation
• address issue of job security, including out
  placement services
• Promote opportunities to socialize- organize
  events that help to satisfy social needs
• Recognize employees accomplishments- award
  programs satisfy esteem needs

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Goal Settings

• a process of determining specific levels of
  performance for workers to attain
• -one of the most important motivational forces in
  organization

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Locke and Lathams Goal setting Theory

• Having a goal serves as a motivator because it
  influence
• peoples beliefs about their ability to perform
  the task- Self Efficacy
• the degree to which people invest themselves in
  the task.
• Goal commitment is determined by the extent to
  which an individual desires to attain the goal
  and believes that he has a reasonable chance of
  doing so

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Managers Guidelines for setting Effective
Performance Goals

• Assign specific goals
• Assign difficult but acceptable Performance
  goals
• Provide feed back concerning goal attainment

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Assign specific goals

• People perform at higher levels when asked to
  meet a specific, high-performance goal than when
  asked simply to do your best or when no goal at
  all is assigned
• improve output, reduce absenteeism,
  decrease accidents

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Assign difficult- but acceptable performance goal

• People will internalize the goal if it is
  perceived as challenging but attainable
• involve employees in goal setting process

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Provide feedback concerning goal attainment

• Inform individual about how closely s/he is
  approaching the performance goal
• without feedback, workers do their jobs blindly

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Motivating by being Fair

• Organizational justice- peoples perception of
  fairness in organizations,consisting of
  perceptions regarding how decisions are made
  concerning the distribution of outcomes

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Motivating by being Fair

• Procedural Justice- focus is on the process used
  to resource allocation decisions
• Equity theory- focus is on the perceived fairness
  of the outcomes themselves

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Two types of organizational justice
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Adams Equity Theory

• People strive to maintain a ratio of their own
  outcomes(rewards) to their own inputs(contribution
  s) equal to the outcome/input ratio of others
  with whom they compare themselves

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Adams Equity Theory

• Outcomes-the rewards such as salary and
  recognition, that employees receive from their
  jobs
• Inputs-peoples contributions to their jobs, such
  as their experience, qualifications or amount of
  time worked
• outcome others outcome
• Input others input

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Overpayment inequity

• The condition ,resulting in feelings of guilt,
  in which the ratio of ones outcomes to ones
  input is more than the corresponding ratio of
  comparison person
• - individual may raise her inputs or lower his
  outcomes
• Outcomes gt Others outcome
• Input Input

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Underpayment inequity

• The condition,resulting in feelings of anger,
  in which the ratio of ones outcomes to ones
  input is less than the corresponding ratio of the
  comparison person
• -individual may decrease his/her inputs or
  increase his/her outcomes
• Outcome lt Others outcome
• Input Inputs

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Perceptual resolution of Inequity

• Change how you think about the situation

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Procedural justice

• Making decisions fairly
• For the outcomes to be fair, the procedures
  must be fair

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Procedural justice

• Structural side of procedural justice-
  determining how decisions need to be made for
  them to be considered fair
• give people a say in how decisions are made
• provide an opportunity for errors to be
  corrected-appeal process
• apply rules and policies consistently
• make decisions in an unbiased manner

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Procedural Justice

• Social side of procedural Justice- quality of
  interpersonal treatment received at hands of
  decision maker
• Interactional Justice- perceived fairness of the
  interpersonal treatment used to determine
  organizational outcomes
• -informational justification-thoroughness of the
  information received about the decision
• -social sensitivity-amount of dignity and respect
  demonstrated when presenting an undesirable
  outcome

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Motivating by Altering expectancies

• Expectancy theory- characterizes people as being
  rational beings who think about what they must do
  to be rewarded and how much that reward means to
  them before they actually perform their jobs.
• Basic elements-
• Expectancy
• Instrumentality
• valence

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Expectancy

• Belief that ones effort will influence ones
  performance positively

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Instrumentality

• Beliefs regarding the likelihood of being
  rewarded according to his/her own level of
  performance

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Valence

• Value a person places on the rewards s/he expects
  to receive from an organization

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Valence

• Valence- How much you desire an outcome?
• If you desire an outcome-positive valence
• If you dont like an outcome- negative valence
• If you are indifferent towards an outcome- Zero
  valence

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Instrumentality

• Relation between performance and out come
• your perception of what level of performance
  would lead to the out come

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Expectancy

• Relation between the effort you make for that
  level of performance
• How do you perceive the relation of how much
  effort you need to put in for that level of
  performance.

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Expectancy theory(contd)

• Combining all the three components- motivation is
  a multiplicative function of the three elements
• If any component is zero, overall level of
  motivation is also zero

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Expectancy Theory (contd)

• Other determinants of job performance-
  motivation is only one of several important
  determinants
• Skills and abilities-determine person-job-fit
• Role perceptions-what employees believe their
  jobs duties to be
• Opportunities- chance to perform the job

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Managerial Applications of Expectancy theory

• Clarify peoples expectancies that effort leads
  to performance- train, make desired performance
  attainable and help employee to attain level of
  performance
• Administer rewards with a positive valence-
  carrot must be tasty. Cafeteria style benefit
  plan- incentive system in which worker can select
  fringe benefits s/he wants from a menu of
  alternatives
• Clearly link valued rewards and performance-
  enhance beliefs about instrumentality by
  specifying what behaviour leads to what rewards

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Motivating by Structuring Jobs to make them
Interesting

• Job enlargement-expansion of the content of a
  job to include more tasks at the same level.
• Does not increase responsibility nor skills
  needed to do job-horizontal job loading
• May help to improve job performance, but its
  effect may not be lasting

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Job enrichment

• Gives employees a high degree of control over
  their work, from planning and organization
  through implementation and evaluation.
• Employees determine how to do their jobs-
  vertical job loading
• although successful in many organizations,
  popularity is limited by difficulty in
  implementation and lack of employee acceptance

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Motivating by structuring jobs to make them
interesting

• Job characteristics model- affect motivation,
  satisfaction and performance
• Core dimensions
• Skill variety
• Task Identity
• Task significance
• Autonomy
• Feed back

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Core job Dimensions

• Skill Variety- extent to which a job requires
  worker to use different skills and talents
• Task Identity- extent to which an entire piece of
  work is completed from the beginning to end
• Task Significance- impact of job on others
• Autonomy-amount of discretion to do job as
  desired
• Feed back- information about performance
  effectiveness

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Critical psychological states- beliefs engendered
by core dimensions

• Experienced meaningfulness-importance and value
  of job
• stems from skill variety, task identity and
  significance
• Personal responsibility and accountability- stems
  from autonomy
• Knowledge of results- stems from feedback

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Job characteristics Model

• Does the model apply to every one?model is
  especially effective in describing behaviour of
  people who are high in growth need strength
• Putting it all together
• 1. Job Diagnostic Survey(JDS)- questionnaire used
  to measure the core dimensions present in a given
  job

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Putting it all together(contd)

• Motivating potential Score(MPS)- mathematical
  index describing the degree to which a job is
  designed to motivate people
• MPS Skill varietytask identitytask
  significance x autonomy x feedback
• 3
• Evidence for the model-most empirical tests have
  supported many aspects of the model

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