Il commercio internazionale dellUE Le relazioni commerciali dell UE con il resto del mondo Carlo Alt

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Il commercio internazionale dellUE Le
relazioni commerciali dell UE con il resto del
mondoCarlo Altomonte
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The EU role in International Trade (2005)
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Gli strumenti della politica commerciale i dazi

• I dazi sono la forma più antica di politica
  commerciale. Ricadono in due categorie
• I dazi specifici sono imposti come una tassa
  fissa per ogni unità
• I dazi ad valorem sono imposti come una
  proporzione del valore del bene importato
• I dazi sono positivi per i governi perché
  generano entrate
• I dazi proteggono i produttori domestici, ma ne
  riducono lefficienza
• I dazi sono negativi per i consumatori perché
  fanno aumentare il costo dei beni

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The classic theory of Economic Integration
Country Home

• Hypotheses
• one country H and one homogeneous commodity
  (e.g., corn)
• pure competition in commodity and factor markets
• upward sloping domestic supply SH (constant
  MCAC)
• pH internal equilibrium price of Country H
• pw world prices and world supply Sw (perfectly
  elastic)

Protectionism
Free trade

• OA Domestic supply
• OB Domestic demand
• AB Imports from RoW

• pw T TH pH T is the prohibitive
  (specific) tariff

• OQ Domestic supply Domestic demand
• There are no imports from the rest of the world

The theory of economic integration studies how
intermediate situations between pure
protectionism and free trade affect efficiency in
the use of resources for every country, hence
maximising their welfare effects. Fundamental
hypotheses perfect competition and small
country Four typical arrangements are studied
Free Trade Areas (e.g. NAFTA, Mercosur, CEFTA),
Customs Unions (e.g. EU-Turkey), Common Markets
(e.g. EC, 1993), Economic Unions (e.g. EU, 1999).
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Gli strumenti della politica commerciale i
sussidi

• Pagamento statale ad un produttore domestico
• Sovvenzioni
• Prestiti a tasso agevolato
• Agevolazioni fiscali
• Partecipazioni statali nelle imprese
• I sussidi sono generati dalla tassazione
• I sussidi incoraggiano la sovrapproduzione,
  linefficienza e riducono il commercio
  internazionale

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Gli strumenti della politica commerciale i
contingentamenti

• Contingentamento alle importazioni
• Restrizione sulla quantità di un certo bene
  importata in un paese
• Restrizioni volontarie delle esportazioni (VER)
• Quote sul commercio imposte dal paese
  esportatore, tipicamente su richiesta del paese
  importatore

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Il concetto di equivalente tariffario
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Gli strumenti della politica commerciale le
politiche antidumping

• Il dumping è definito come
• La vendita di beni in un mercato estero ad un
  prezzo inferiore ai costi di produzione
• La vendita di beni in un mercato estero ad un
  prezzo inferiore al giusto valore di mercato
• E il risultato
• Del riversamento della produzione in eccesso
• Di un comportamento predatorio
• Rimedio imposizione di dazi

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The EU Pyramid of preferences
EU membership
acquis communautaire
E.N.P.
Association Agreement
Cooperation Agreement
Reduced C.E.T.
Generalised System of preferences
Common Commercial Policy
C.E.T.
GATT/WTO multilateral rules (MFN clause) gt Free
Trade
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Free trade areas and Customs Union
Protectionism Countries maintain individual
tariffs TH, TP with the RoW and between
themselves South-Mediterranean countries
Customs Union H-P Countries agree on a unique
Common External Tariff with the RoW and
liberalize trade between themselves European
Union - 1969
Free Trade Area H-P Countries maintain individual
tariffs TH, TP with the RoW but liberalize trade
between themselves NAFTA (Us, Canada, Mexico)
protectionism (TH,P gt 0)
free trade (TH,P 0)
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The EU Pyramid of preferences
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The Common Commercial Policy in the EU Treaties
The 1957 Treaty of Rome creates a Custom Union
with a Common External Tariff (CET) and a Common
Commercial Policy, therefore assigning an
exclusive competence to the EU Commission
Common Commercial Policy
(Part Three - Title IX of TEC, Artt. 131-134)
Art. 133 (extracts)
2. The Commission shall submit proposals to the
Council for implementing the common commercial
policy. 3. Where agreements with one or more
States or international organisations need to be
negotiated, the Commission shall make
recommendations to the Council, which shall
authorise the Commission to open the necessary
negotiations. 4. In exercising the powers
conferred upon it by this Article, the Council
shall act by a qualified majority. 5. The
Council, acting unanimously on a proposal from
the Commission and after consulting the European
Parliament, may extend the application of par. 1
to 4 to international negotiations and agreements
on services and intellectual property insofar as
they are not covered by these paragraphs.
The Council votes under qualified majority for
cooperation agreements, but unanimously for
association agreements. These agreements also
require the assent of the European Parliament
Cooperation and Association Agreements
(Part Six of TEC, Artt. 300 and 310) Art. 310
(extracts)
The Community may conclude with one or more
States or international organisations agreements
establishing an association involving reciprocal
rights and obligations, common action and special
procedure.
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Common Commercial Policy and the Nice Treaty
Cooperation and Association Agreements gt The
Nice Treaty
(Part Three - New Title XXI Economic, Financial
and Technical Cooperation with Third Countries
of TEC, Art. 181a)
Art. 181a (extracts) 1. the Community shall
carry out, within its spheres of competence,
economic, financial and technical cooperation
measures with third countries. Such measures
shall be complementary to those carried out by
the Member States and consistent with the
development policy of the Community. Community
policy in this area shall contribute to the
general objective of developing and consolidating
democracy and the rule of law, and to the
objective of respecting human rights and
fundamental freedoms. 2. The Council, acting by a
qualified majority on a proposal from the
Commission and after consulting the European
Parliament, shall adopt the measures necessary
for the implementation of paragraph 1. The
Council shall act unanimously for the association
agreements referred to in Article 310 and for the
agreements to be concluded with the States which
are candidates for accession to the Union.
From these Titles of the Treaty (juridical base)
we derive - the instruments to run the CCP
tariffs - quotas- VER - antidumping measures
- the so called Pyramid of preferences (A
system of preferential trade agreements of the
EU with different regional areas)
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GATT/WTO chronology
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Effects of the Uruguay Round on the EU trade
policy
Average tariffs on manufactured goods 6 Import
values in 1995
Reduction of at least 38 by year 2000 gt
3.7 Import values in year 2000
Average tariffs on agricultral goods 26 Import
values in 1995
Reduction of at least 38 by year 2000 gt
18.4 Import values in year 2000
Quotas on textiles, bananas, etc.
Banned under WTO
VER (e.g. Japanese cars)
Banned under WTO
Anti-dumping measures
Allowed
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Main results of the Uruguay Round
- Overall reduction of tariffs and duties on
manufactured goods by 38 - Progressive abolition
of quotas on trade in textiles and apparel
(MFA) - General Agreement on Trade in Services
(GATS) (trade creation 1.000 bln US in telecom
3.000 bln US in financial services) - Agreement
on Agricolture (AoA) - Agreement on Trade
Related Intellectual Property rights (TRIPs)

• International body, not a provisional
  agreement as GATT
• Member States with formal admission procedures,
  not contracting parties
• capabilities not limited to goods but also
  services and general trade issues
• binding mechanism of dispute settlement

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WTO Key Principles

• RECIPROCITY WTO members have symmetric rights
  and obligations, and should obtain mutually
  beneficial reductions of trade barriers,
  therefore setting up a multilateral system of
  trade liberalisation.
• CONSENSUS any decision taken within the WTO
  requires unanimity of all the participating
  countries.
• NON-DISCRIMINATION
• NATIONAL TREATMENT (NT) once inside the border
  of a member, products of other member States
  cannod be discriminated (e.g. special
  distribution channels or legal restrictions)
• MOST FAVORED NATION (MFN) a member country A
  cannot apply to another member B a tariff
  different than the lowest applied to a given
  member C, with the exception of Regional
  Integration Agreements (art. XXIV of GATT
  provisions)
• TARIFF-BINDING once a tariff reduction has been
  negotiated and accepted, it becomes bound at
  the negotiated rate, i.e. a tariff cannot be
  subsequently increased above the bound rate
  without incurring sanctions.

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From the Uruguay to the Development Round of WTO
1. The political economy of the negotiations 2.
The Agreement on Agricolture access to markets,
non-trade concerns, LDCs 3. The extension of the
GATS e-commerce and cultural safeguard clause 4.
Competition and Foreign Direct Investment 5.
Trade and environment 6. The social clause
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1. The political economy of negotiations

• Political problems
• - global vs. bilateral approach
• - role of LDCs (rules vs. access to mkts)
• - number of countries

• Political problems
• - Internet and role of NGOs
• - different sensibilities
• - non-trade concerns

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2. The Agreement on Agriculture

• Object of negotiations
• - three key words market access - domestic
  support - export subsidies
• Diverging goals
• - Cairns Group gt intensive industrial-style
  agriculture gt free trade
• - European Union gt multifunctional character
  of agriculture gt protection

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3. The extension of GATS

• Object of negotiations
• - further opening of the services sector to
  public tenders, transports, e-commerce

• Diverging goals

• greater opening of US market for public tenders

• protection of the internal market for public
  tenders

• liberalisation in the e-commerce activities

• cultural safeguard clause

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4. Competition and Foreign Direct Investment

• Object of negotiations on the so-called
  Singapore issues
• - to define a common international regulatory
  framework leading to a minimum set of binding
  principles in the field of competition policies
  in order not to jeopardise the benefits deriving
  from trade liberalisation
• - to define a set of multilateral rules for the
  protection and the guarantee of foreign
  investments of multinational corporations
• - to implement the agreement on Trade Related
  Investment Measures (TRIMs)

• Diverging goals
• - Developing Countries gt fears of a threat to
  national sovereignty
• - EU and USA gt to ensure a competitive access
  to markets to their corporations

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5. Trade and Environment

• Object of negotiations
• a) to evaluate the environmental effects of
  trade policies
• b) to evaluate the effects of environmental
  rules on trade
• c) to implement a possible utilisation of trade
  instruments in order to achieve environmental
  targets

• Diverging goals

- Developing Countries gt
Fears of constraints to their economic growth -
hidden protectionism
- European Union and United States gt
To give a political answers to internal mounting
pressures on environment protection
Technology transfers of environmentally-friendly
production processes ?
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6. The Social clause

• Object of negotiations
• to define a minimum standard of treatment of
  workers in order to avoid child-work, slavery,
  etc.

• Diverging goals

- Developing Countries gt
Hidden protectionism - external influence on the
national social model
- European Union and United States gt
To give a political answers to internal mounting
social sensibilities
- Open Forum of dialogue between the civil
society (NGOs) and other relevant international
bodies (WTO-ILO-UN) - Reform of the WTO decision
mechanisms, with a more direct involvement of all
interested parties
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The current status of the Development Round
1. Different political economy compact coalition
of developing countries US-EU cooperation (2007
deadline for fast track authority in US) China
on the background 2. A new negotiation of the
AoA agreement to reduce, and in perspective
abolish, the export subsidies (without
prejudging the outcome), improve the access to
markets and cut trade-distorting domestic support
measures. Official inclusion of non-trade
concerns in the talks. Controversial progresses
insofar after the meeting in Hong Kong (Dec
05). 3. Extension of GATS new requests to be put
forward by June 2002 and counter-offers by March
2003. No duties on e-commerce until end of round.
Start of negotiations on public procurement rules
in 2003, but only as far as transparency issues
are concerned. Maintenance of national
preferential treatments 4. Competition and
investments talks were supposed to start in
2003, but no agreement was reached in Cancùn.
Finally all the Singapore issues have been
eliminated from the Agenda. 5. Trade and
environment talks on the link between WTO rules
and multilateral agreements (issues a-b) and the
reduction of duties on environmentally friendly
goods (c). Talks ongoing on the precautionary
principle and geographic indication 6. Social
clause not in the agenda TRIPS and public
health accommodating pressures from developing
countries the agreement extends the deadline for
least-developed countries to apply provisions on
pharmaceutical patents until 1 January 2016.
Flexibility in the application of rules when
public health is threatened.