APES year in review

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APES year in review
2015-16, the year everyone gets a 5!
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I. Earth systems and resources

• Earth Science concepts
• The atmosphere
• Global water resources and use
• Soil and soil dynamics
• 10-15

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A. Earth Science concepts
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Geologic time scale

• Earth 4.5 bya
• Life 3.8 bya
• Eukaryotes 2.1 bya
• Cambrian explosion 542 mya
• Modern humans 200,000 ya

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Plate tectonics, earthquakes, volcanism
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Global air circulation
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Seasons, solar intensity, and latitude

• Earths tilt ? different amounts of solar
  intensity at different latitudes/hemispheres ?
  seasons

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B. The Atmosphere
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Structure of the atmosphere
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Troposphere

• Where weather happens
• 78 N2
• 20 O2
• Less than 2
• H2O vapor (.01-4)
• Argon gas (1)
• CO2 (0.04)
• Trace gases

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Coriolis effect
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ENSO
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C. Global water resources and use
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Earths water supply
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Water Facts

• The primary use for fresh water in U.S. is for
  agriculture.
• In our homes, we use the most fresh water to
  wash, clean and flush.
• The typical person in an industrialized nation
  uses 700-1000 gallons per week

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Human effects on the Hydrologic Cycle
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Rain shadow
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The Ogallala Aquifer

• Increasing irrigation is draining it
• Supplies drinking water to 2.3 million peoplee

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Human interference with water supply

• Mono Lake
• The water in the lake was diverted from the lake
  to the city of Los Angeles. It became a salt bed.
• ? Salt concentration due to evaporation
• Three Gorges Dam in China
• China needs to meet the growing demand for energy
• Huge environmental impact
• Hundreds of thousands of people displaced (not to
  mention the ecosystems which will be flooded)

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Consequences of making food

• Air
• Greenhouse gas emissions from fossil fuels
• Other air pollutants from fossil fuels
• Pollutions from pesticide sprays

• Soil
• Erosion
• Loss of fertility
• Salinization
• Waterlogging
• Desertification

• Water
• Aquifer depletion
• Increased runoff and flooding from land cleared
  to grow crops
• Fish kills from pesticide runoff
• Surface and groundwater pollution from pesticides
  and fertilizers
• Over fertilization of lakes -gt eutrophication

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D. Soil and soil dynamics
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Soil degradation

• Formed from weathering
• Demand for food destroys the soil
• erosion
• minerals in soil are depleted
• salinization
• increased use of pesticides
• Overuse of fresh water

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Soil profile
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Texture
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Loam

• Theoretically ideal
• 40 sand
• 40 silt
• 20 clay

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Rock cycle
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II. The Living World

• Ecosystem structure
• Energy flow
• Ecosystem diversity
• Natural ecosystem change
• Natural biogeochemical cycles
• 10-15

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A. Ecosystem structure
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Levels of organization of matter

• Universe
• Biosphere
• Biomes
• Ecosystems
• Communities
• Populations
• Organisms
• Cells
• Atoms

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Chemistry

• Atoms basic units of matter
• Electron
• Proton
• Neutron
• Other vocab to know
• Chemical bonds how atoms are held together
• Ionic
• Covalent
• Molecule/compound two or more atoms bonded
  together
• pH scale
• Base alkaline
• Acid

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Organic Compounds

• C-C bonds and/or C-H bonds
• Can be natural or synthetic
• Natural make up living systems
• Synthetic man-made

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Evolutionary Change

• Vocabulary that you need to know
• DNA
• Chromosome
• Gene
• allele
• Central Dogma
• DNA - blueprint
• RNA - carpenter
• Protein - house, wood

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Mutations

• Mutations are naturally random events
• Normal variation
• Chemical
• UV
• Radiation
• Genetic Trait
• Only passed down if an organism reproduces
• Only genetics traits can evolve through natural
  selection (traits acquired during lifetime cannot
  be acted on by natural selection)

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Ecosystems

• Plants and animals interacting with their abiotic
  environment
• Exist in biomes
• Climate avg weather over long time
• Weather daily variations in temp and
  precipitation
• Microclimate and Other Abiotic Factors
• Light intensity
• Soil type
• Topography

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Relationships

• Mutualism
• Flowers insects
• Commensalism
• Predator/prey
• host parasite
• Competition
• Habitat vs. niche

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Limiting Factors

• Temperature, light, oxygen, carbon dioxide,
  precipitation
• Synergistic effects

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Ecosystems how they work

• All stable ecosystems recycle matter and get
  energy from the sun
• All matter is recycled through the lithosphere,
  hydrosphere, and atmosphere.
• Nothing is created nothing is destroyed
• Keystone species
• Indicator species
• Edge effects
• Species diversity

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Biomes

• Terrestrial
• Rainforest, tundra, etc.
• Aquatic
• Streams
• Lakes
• Wetlands

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B. Energy flow
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Trophic Relationship

• Food webs
• Trophic levels
• Producers
• Herbivores
• primary carnivores

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Biomass and Biomass Pyramid

• All biomass gets its energy from the sun
• Only 10 of energy from one trophic level moves
  to the next trophic level
• Energy released is high potential energy
  molecules (like glucose) then converted to low
  potential energy molecules (like carbon dioxide)
• Concept of eating lower on the biomass pyramid

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Food chains

• Bioaccumulation
• Build up in an organisms
• Biomagnification
• Build up in a food chain
• Reverse rule of 10

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Rachel Carson

• Rachel Carson was a scientist who wrote Silent
  Spring in 1962
• It addressed the growing use of pesticides (DDT)
  and their unpredicted effects on song birds
• Original users of pesticides did not know that
  the poisons used to kill insects would accumulate
  in other living things and kill them too
• BIOACCUMULATION

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More Cool Environmentalist

• John Muir Sierra Club
• Ansel Adams Photography (Yosemite)
• Aldo Leopold Sand County Almanac
• Henry David Thoreau Walden
• Garrett Hardin Tragedy of the Commons

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Photosynthesis

• Very inefficient (Only 1 of the energy from the
  sun is used)
• Chlorophyll absorbs light to drive
  photosynthesis
• Formula H2O CO2 ? C6H12O6 O2
• Cell respiration formula is the opposite
• Plants use glucose to
• Construct other molecules
• Build their cell wall
• Store energy
• Source of energy

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C. Ecosystem diversity
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Why do species change?

• Environmental resistance and biotic potential
• Selective pressure on mutations
• Speciation
• Creation of a new species based on reproductive
  isolation
• A change in an ecosystem causes 1 of 3 things
  happen to organisms
• Evolve, migrate, or die

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Speciation (Galapagos Finches)
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Geological Context (space and time for
evolution)

• Natural selection
• Plate tectonics
• Geological time scale
• Selective breeding
• Artificial selection

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Ecosystem services

• Benefits of biodiversity
• Clean air
• Clean water
• Aesthetic value
• Potential

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Loss of Biodiversity

• Habitat destruction leads to a loss of many
  species starting with the plants
• exact of species lost is unknown because not
  all species are identified
• strong ecosystems need biodiversity
• 1959-1980 25 of all prescription drugs from
  natural resources
• Wild species keep domestic species vigorous
• Aesthetics

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D. Natural ecosystem change
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Population and Succession

• Top 6 most abundant elements in living things
• CHONPS (not in order)
• Top 8 elements in the earths crust (in order)
• O, Si, Al, Fe, Ca, Na, P, Mg

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Fires in Ecosystem

• Maintain balance of species and energy in
  ecosystems over the long run.
• Beneficial b/c provide nutrients for soil
• We avoid natural fires, but unnatural fire kill
  the whole tree

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Succession - One species gradually replaced by
another in an ecosystem

• Primary new ecosystem where there were no
  living things before. Cooled lava, receded
  glacier, mud slide
• Secondary- ecosystem used to be there. Fire,
  humans clear an area
• Aquatic lakes taken over by terrestrial
  ecosystem
• Climax ecosystem- in balance only changes if
  major interference

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Primary succession

• Must create new soil for plants to grow
• The first plants to come in are called pioneer
  species
• Lichen
• Moss
• Microbes

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Climate shifts

• Ice ages

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E. Natural biogeochemical cycles
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Carbon cycle

• Carbon is tied up in living things, absorbed in
  oceans and land. Released as CO2. Then Plants!
• Photosynthesis!
• Moving fossil fuels (which took millions of years
  to form) to the atmosphere (in hundreds of years)
  is a major component of global warming.
• Hydrocarbon fuels to CO2

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Nitrogen cycle

• Main reserve in the atmosphere
• Living things must get N from ammonium (NH4) or
  nitrate (NO3)
• N from the atmosphere must be fixed
• Change N2 into ammonium or nitrate
• Rhizobium (bacteria living in roots of legumes)
  fig 3-10
• Industrial
• Lightning
• Burning fossil fuels

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Phosphorus cycle

• No gas phase, only solid and liquid
• Man-made fertilizers contain organic phosphates
• Because P is a limiting factor in aquatic
  systems, it leads to eutrophication
• The rain forest is very good at recycling P,
  except when we cut it down

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element Main nonliving reservoir Main living reservoir Other nonliving reservoir Human-induced problem
Carbon C Atmo CO2 Carbohydrates (CH2O)n And all organic molecules Hydro Carbonate (CO3-2) Bicarbonate (HCO3-) Litho minerals Global warming Carbon from fossil fuels underground are burned and released into the air as CO2
Nitrogen N Atmo N2 Proteins and other N- containing organic molecules Hydro Ammonium NH4 Nitrate NO3- Nitrite NO2- Eutrophication Fertilizers contain human-made nitrates that end up in the water
Phos-phorous P Litho rocks as PO4-3 no gas phase DNA ATP phospholipids Hydro Phosphate PO4-3 Eutrophication Fertilizers contain human-made phosphates that end up in the water Cutting down rainforest stops recycling of P
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Main Topics

• Conservation of matter
• Energy flow and the biomass pyramid
• Population dynamics
• Biotic potential vs environmental resistance
• Population equilibrium and balanced herbivory
• Introduced species effects on ecosystems

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III. Population

• Population biology concepts
• Human populations
• Human population dynamics
• Population size
• Impacts of population growth
• 10-15

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A. Population biology concepts
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R vs K
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Carrying capacity determined by limiting
resources
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B. Human population

1. Human population dynamics
2. Population size
3. Impacts of population growth

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Human population growth
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Human population distribution
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Population growth rates

• Crude birth rate number birth per 1000
• Crude death rate number death per 1000
• Growth rate natural increase in population
• If negative, the population is shrinking
• Immigration migration of individuals into a
  population from another area or country
• Emigration migration of individuals from a
  population bound for another country
• Growth rate (births immigration) (deaths
  emigration)

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Doubling time

• Rule of 70

 
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Demographic transitions
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Demographic transition

• As countries develop their death rate drops then
  their birth rate drops because
• Phase 2
• Medical care
• Nutrition
• Technology
• Phase 3
• Birth control
• Education (of women)
• Lower infant mortality
• Less child labor

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Fertility rates

• Total fertility avg of children born per
  woman
• Fertility of 2 replacement level
• Under 2 shrinking population
• Over 2 growing pop.
• For developed countries 2.1
• For developing countries 2.6 (or higher)

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Developed vs developing

• Developed

• Developing

• Canada, U.S., Australia, Western Europe (Denmark)

• Latin America, China, Africa (Kenya)
• 80 of worlds pop and growing
• 20 of the worlds pop. lives in absolute
  poverty, illiterate, lack clean H2O and dont
  have enough food

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Population sizes to know
World 7 billion
China 1.4 billion
India 1.3 billion

US 319 million
Indonesia 250 million
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Impacts of human population growth

• More than 7 billion people
• Last 25 yrs population grew by 2 billion
• Projected population is 10 billion by 2050
• Increasing pop ? increasing
• Need for resources
• Hunger drought
• Habitat destruction
• Disease transmission
• Poverty

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The human population

• World population trends
• Calculations
• Demographic transition
• Age structure diagrams
• Developed vs. developing countries
• Fertility rates
• World bank
• 1994 UN conference in Cairo- program of action

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IV. Land and water use

1. Agriculture
2. Forestry
3. Rangelands
4. Other land use
5. Mining
6. Fishing
7. Global economics

10-15
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A. Agriculture
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Major Environmental Effects of Food Production

• Biodiversity Loss
• Loss and degradation of habitat from clearing
  grasslands and forests and draining wetlands
• Fish kills from pesticide runoff
• Killing wild predators to protect live stock
• Loss of genetic diversity from replacing
  thousands of wild crop strains with a few
  monoculture strains

• Human Health
• Nitrates pesticide residues in drinking water,
  food, and air
• Contamination of water with disease organisms
  from livestock wastes

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The Green Revolution

• To eliminate hunger by improving crop performance
  by using
• New crop cultivars
• Irrigation
• Fertilizers
• Pesticides
• Mechanization
• Results
• Did not eliminate famine
• Population still increasing
• Increase cost of production
• An increased negative environmental impact
• Didnt work for everyone

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Endocrine Disrupters

• Interfere with normal hormone action
• Can interfere with development
• Are often connected to cancer
• Can interfere with sexual activity (alligators)
• Are found in plastics and some pesticides

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Risks and Pests

• Hazard - Anything that causes
• Injury, disease, or death to humans
• Damage to property
• Destruction of the environment
• Cultural hazard - a risk that a person chooses to
  engage in
• Risk
• The probability of suffering as a result of a
  hazard
• Perception
• What people think the risks are

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Insecticides/Pesticides

• Integrated pest management includes
• adjusting environmental conditions
• chemical pesticides
• disease resistant varieties
• crop rotation
• biological controls
• Insecticides kills plants, mammals, fish, birds
• A broad spectrum pesticide is effective towards
  many types of pests

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DDT

• Persistent, synthetic organic compound and a
  subject to biomagnification in food chains
• Accumulates in fat
• Was not used for handling weeds

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Diseases

• Lyme disease can be processed to humans through a
  bite from an infected tick
• Mosquitoes causes Malaria, the vector for
  Plasmodium
• The protozoan of the genus Plasmodium is the
  causative agent of malaria

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Diseases contd

• Lack of access to safe drinking water is a major
  cause of disease transmission in developing
  countries.
• Epidemiology is the study of the presence,
  distribution and control of a diseases in a
  population
• Morbidity is the incidence of disease in a
  population
• Mortality is the incidence of death in a
  population

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B. Forestry

• Ecological services 4.7 trillion per year
• Climate regulation, erosion control, waste
  treatment, etc.
• Tree harvesting
• Selective cutting vs clear-cutting vs strip
  cutting

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Forests, fires, ecosystem maintenance
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C. Rangelands

• Ecological services
• Overgrazing ? erosion, compaction
• Deforestation
• Desertification
• Management federal rangelands
• Regulate duration of organisms grazing
• Replant areas
• Apply fertilizer

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D. Other land use

1. Urban land development
2. Transportation infrastructure
3. Public and federal lands
4. Land conservation options
5. Sustainable land-use strategies

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Urban land development

• Planned development
• Mixed zone vs separate zones
• Suburban sprawl
• Car centered development (separate zones)
• Urbanization
• Movement ? cities ? suburbs

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Transportation infrastructure

• Federal highways
• Canals and channels
• Roadless areas
• Ecosystem impacts
• Habitat fragmentation
• Habitat preservation

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Public and federal lands

• Wilderness areas
• Most restricted (only hiking, fishing, camping,
  non-motorized boats)
• National parks
• Recreation areas, battlefields, historic sites
• Wildlife refuges
• Protect areas for animal breeding, endangered
  animals, etc.
• Can have mining logging, oil and gas development
• Forests Wetlands

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Land conservation options

• Preservation
• Remediation
• Mitigation
• Restoration
• CERCLA (superfund)

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Sustainable land-use strategies

• 4 principals suggested to govern public lands
• Protect biodiversity
• No subsidies/tax breaks for extracting resources
• Compensate people for use of their property
• Companies be responsible for any environmental
  damage

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Easter Island

• Sustainability
• A system/process can continue indefinitely
  without depleting resources used
• Stewardship
• Caring for something that does not belong to you

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Protection of Biodiversity and Ecosystems

• Threatened
• If trend continues, the species will be
  endangered
• Endangered
• If trend continues, the species will go extinct
• 25 of drugs used as medicines come from natural
  plant sources.
• Exxon Valdez Oil Spill (1989)
• 300,000 birds died as a result of that particular
  oil spill. The area, Prince William Sound, is
  still recovering

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E. Mining

• Surface vs subsurface
• Acid mine drainage
• SMCRA
• Regulates strip mining and encourages reclamation
  of mined land

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F. Fishing

• Techniques
• Line fishing, cage farming, purse-seine fishing,
  trawler fishing, drift-net fishing
• Overfishing
• Aquaculture
• Shallow, near shore
• Deep sea
• Marine mammal protection act

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G. Global economics

• Globalization
• World bank
• Tragedy of the Commons
• Government regulations and international treaties
  can solve

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World Bank

• Special agency of the UN
• Receives from developed countries and loans to
  developing countries
• Sometimes this backfires by increasing debt
• Oversees all types of issues, not just
  environmental issues
• Ex. electricity, roads, new modern technology

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V. Energy resources and consumption

1. Energy concepts
2. Energy consumption
3. Fossil fuel resources and use
4. Nuclear energy
5. Hydroelectric power
6. Energy conservation
7. Renewable energy

10-15
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A. Energy concepts
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Physics

• Energy is measured in calories
• Calorie amount of heat needed to raise 1 gram
  of water 1 degree Celsius.
• Kilocalorie 1,000 calories
• 1st law of thermodynamics
• Energy cannot be created nor destroyed, only
  change forms (potential ? kinetic)
• 2nd law of thermodynamics
• Energy transformation increases disorder
  (entropy) of the universe
• Heat is the lowest grade of energy

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Electricity

• Electricity is a secondary energy source because
  it relies on another energy source to create it
• 20 from nuclear
• 57 from coal
• Oil, geothermal, solar, wind, hydroelectric
• No boiling water required for these sources
• Basic production of electricity
• Boil water ? produce steam ? turn turbines ?
  generate electron flow through a wire

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B. Energy consumption
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Energy facts

• Brief history of energy
• 1700-1800 Fire wood
• 1900-1920 Coal
• Industrial revolution medical revolution ?
  exponential growth of population and energy use
• 1950-now Crude oil
• Production of crude oil withdrawing it from
  reserves
• OPEC (Organization of Petroleum Exporting
  Countries)
• Mainly mid-east countries

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C. Fossil fuel resources and use
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Formation of
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More Energy Facts

• We get 50 of crude oil from foreign sources
• Alaska pipeline built to help increase production
  of domestic crude oil
• Types of coal

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Coal

• Environmental Consequences
• Production
• Ecosystem damage, reclamation difficult, acid
  mine runoff, mine tailings, erosion, black lung,
  radon
• Transport
• Energy intensive because of weight and number of
  train cars needed
• Use
• Fossil fuel with largest source of CO2 and
  greatest quantity of contaminants, large volume
  of waste, acid precipitation

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Oil The Most Important Fossil Fuel in the
American Economy

• Environmental Consequences
• Production
• Local ecosystem damage possible
• Transport
• Oil spills cause local and regional ecosystem
  damage
• Use
• Photochemical smog, particulates, acid
  precipitation, CO2

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Natural Gas

• Possibly a transition fuel between fossil fuel
  and alternative energy sources
• Environmental Consequences
• Production
• Local ecosystem damage possible if oil or coal is
  part of the deposit
• Transport
• Can be explosive
• Use
• Produces the least air pollutants of all the
  fossil fuels

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D. Nuclear energy
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Nuclear Power

• Splitting of uraniums nucleus gives off heat
  that can be used to boil water and turn a turbine
  and generator to create electricity
• Pros
• No CO2 emissions, no particulate emissions
• Cons
• Radiation can lead to damaged DNA, costs,
  radioactive waste, thermal pollution

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Nuclear important facts

• Fusion
• Combination of 2 atoms
• Fission
• Splitting an atom
• Radioisotope
• Unstable radioactive isotope

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Uranium is radioactive

• When U235 is hit by a neutron, it is split
  (fission) into two smaller elements such as Kr
  and Ba plus three neutrons which sustain the
  chain reaction.
• Natural uranium is mined and used as fuel in
  nuclear reactors
• Most (99.3) of the naturally occurring uranium
  is U238.
• For a nuclear reactor, this must be purified to
  4 U235 and 96 U238. (very expensive)

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How does a Power Plant Operate?

• Water moderator slows down neutrons
• Neutron-absorbing material control rod
• Fuel Rods 1/3 replaced each year
• Redundant safety systems
• Heat transfer system
• Cooling system

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Waste Disposal

• All fuel rods are still in cooling ponds at
  commercial nuclear facilities
• Concerns Geological activity, Intrusion of water
  table, distances for wastes travel, radioactive
  decay and half-lives

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Accidents

• Chernobyl
• 4/26/86
• Ukraine
• Complete meltdown
• Three Mile Island
• 3/28/79
• Pennsylvania (Harrisburg)
• Partial meltdown, no one known to be hurt

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E. Hydroelectric power

• Dams
• Environmental ecological impacts
• Flood control
• Salmon
• Silting

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F. Energy conservation

• Energy efficiency
• CAFÉ standards
• Regulate fuel efficiency
• Strategies to improve conservation
• Hybrid electric vehicles
• Mass transit

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G. Renewable energy
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Renewable Energy

• Not fossil fuels, not nuclear
• Wind, falling H2O, geothermal, biomass, tidal,
  solar

134
Solar Energy

• Passive solar
• Large south-facing windows, heavy drapes to trap
  heat at night, interior bricks to trap heat
• Shade windows in summer
• Even though back up systems are required, and
  solar heating may only lessen the need for
  heating oil a few , it will help us adapt to
  diminishing oil supplies.
• Active solar
• Photovoltaic (PV) panels can be used to convert
  the energy from the sun into electricity.
• Electrons from the silicon in the PV panel are
  pushed through a wire by photons from the sun
  creating an electric current.

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VI. Pollution

• Pollution types
• Impacts on the environment and human health
• Economic impacts
• 25-30

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A. Pollution types

1. Air pollution
2. Noise pollution
3. Water pollution
4. Solid waste

138
Air pollution

• ppm vs ppb
• Expensive health care costs, human lives
• Acute, Chronic, Carcinogenic
• Damages buildings, bridges, statues, books
• Aesthetics
• Damage to Plants
• Agriculture crops loss 5 billion/year
• Forests

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Major Outdoor Air Pollutants

• Primary

• Secondary

• Direct products of combustion and evaporation
• Examples
• Suspended particulate matter
• Carbon Monoxide
• Sulfur Oxides (from combustion of coal)

• Primary pollutants undergo rxns in atmosphere
• Examples
• Volatile Organic Compounds
• Ozone and other photochemical oxidants
• Nitrogen Oxides (can be both)

140
Sources of air pollution

• Natural
• Sulfur Volcanoes, sea spray, microbial
• Nitrogen oxides lightening, forest fires,
  microbial
• Anthropogenic (human caused)
• Sulfur oxides coal burning plants, industry,
  fossil fuels.
• Nitrogen oxides power plants, industrial fuel
  combustion, transportation
• Effect areas hundreds of miles from the source of
  emissions, generally not the whole globe

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Temperature inversion
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Heat islands
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Indoor Air Pollutants

• Types benzene, formaldehyde,
  radon, cigarette smoke
• Sources off gassing from furniture, rugs and
  building materials, dry cleaning, cleaning
  fluids, disinfectants, pesticides, heaters
• Buildings with too many indoor air pollutants are
  called sick buildings because more than 20 of
  the people are sick due to occupying the building.

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Solutions Reducing Emissions

• Best way Conservation, just use less!
• Input Control
• Cleaner burning gasoline
• increased fuel efficiency
• alternative modes of transportation
• decrease the number of miles driven
• changes in land use decisions
• catalytic converter

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Output Control

• Scrubbers exhaust fumes through a spray of H2O
  containing lime (CaCO3) SO2 ? CaSO3
• Coal washing to get rid of sulfur
• Fluidized bed combustion
• Produces a waste ash that must be disposed of)

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Noise pollution

• Source traffic in cities
• Human health effects
• Control measures

147
Water Pollution

• Types
• Nutrients, fertilizers, waste
• Microbial
• Suspended matter
• Oil spillage
• Causes wastewater, runoff, spills, etc.
• Point vs non-point
• Eutrophication
• Groundwater pollution

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Solid waste

• Disposal
• Landfill
• Incinerator
• Recycling
• Recycling, composing, etc.

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Sewage treatment

• Sewage treatment is a common practice
• In the 1970s many cities were still dumping raw
  sewage into waterways
• In 1972, the Clean water act provided funding for
  upgrading sewage treatment plants
• Test for sewage contamination in drinking H2O ?
  Fecal Coliform test

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Sewage Treatment

• Raw sewage (99 H2O)
• Preliminary Treatment- allow grit to settle
• 1 separating Raw Sludge from H2O
• Raw Sludge May contain heavy metals
• If it does it needs treatment, to remove the
  toxic chemicals
• 2 AKA Biological Treatment- bacteria feeds on
  the organic material
• 3 Chemical (chlorine, UV light)

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Home Septic Systems

• Do not use chlorine
• Do use settling tank to settle organic solids
• Lets waste water percolate into the soil
  bacterial decomposition

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Municipal Solid Waste

• Most is paper
• 55 of MSW is disposed in landfills
• 17 of MSW is combusted, mostly in
  waste-to-energy (WTE) combustion facilities
• The best solution to solid waste problems is to
  reduce waste at its source.
• More than 75 of MSW is recyclable

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B. Impacts on the environment and human health

1. Hazards to human health
2. Hazardous chemicals in the environment

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Cigarette Smoking

• Leading cause of cancer in U.S.
• Can cause cancer, lung disease, a bigger risk of
  death in addition with other types of air
  pollution.
• Highest health risk in U.S.

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Love Canal, NY

• The government allowed housing to be build over
  the toxic waste dump and people got sick
• Problem first discovered in 1978
• First national emergency in the US because of
  toxic waste
• Led to the superfund legislation.
• Superfund sites
• comes from taxes on chemical industries
• 50 of the spent on legal costs

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Heath effects

• Acute vs chronic
• Acute sudden and severe
• Chronic gets worse and worse over time
• Dose response

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Hazardous Waste

• Cleaning solvents, acids and bases, wastes from
  agriculture and industry, etc.
• Halogenated hydrocarbons
• Organic compounds with a halogen (bromine,
  iodine, ect.) replacing a hydrogen
• Used as pesticides
• Used to make plastic
• Resistant to biodegradation
• Chlorinated hydrocarbons
• Are synthetic organic compounds

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Acids and Bases

• pH-log of hydrogen ions in a solution. Therefore
  each number higher on the pH scale is 10X more
  basic
• Basic OH- ions gt7
• Acidic H ions lt7
• Neutral pure water 7
• Normal rain 6.4
• Acid rain lt 5.5

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Hazardous waste disposal

• Incinerate
• Plasma arc torch
• Deep well disposal
• Pump below aquifers
• Surface impoundments
• Ponds ? as water evaporates waste becomes
  concentrated
• Secure hazardous waste landfill

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C. Economic impacts

• Cost-benefit analysis
• Externalities
• Costs/benefits that affect others
• Example Air pollution from manufacturing
  activities
• Marginal costs
• Most efficient ? no pollution
• Sustainability

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7
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VII. Global change

• Stratospheric ozone
• Global warming
• Loss of biodiversity
• 10-15

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A. Stratospheric ozone
165
Ozone (O3)

• Stratospheric ozone GOOD
• Shields us from harmful UVB rays
• Thinning over the South Pole
• Is like sunscreen for the earth
• Is formed by UV light, is broken down by high
  energy UV light
• Reaction proceeds backwards and forwards
  repeatedly
• Tropospheric ozone BAD
• Lung damage
• GHG

166
Ozone depletion

• Causes
• Chloroflurocarbons Chlorine ions strip an O from
  O3 and form ClO molecules
• Effects
• Increase UV light reaches earths surface
• Sun damage to animals and humans
• Skin cancer, cataracts, etc.
• Crop damage
• Prevention
• Montreal Protocol reduction in CFCs
• Exception CFCs not banned in developing countries

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B. Global warming
168
Global warming

• The natural greenhouse effect is important to
  keep the earth warm enough for life to exist

• Global warming occurs when humans contribute too
  much of these greenhouse gases leading to a (1-3
  degree C) rise in the global average temperature.

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Greenhouse gases

• Natural
• CO2
• Water vapor
• Methane
• Nitrous oxide
• Synthetic
• Chlorofluorocarbons
• Hydrofluorocarbons
• Perfluorocarbons
• Sulfur hexafluoride

170
Global Atmospheric Changes

• Global Warming
• CO2 produced from fossil fuel burning acts like a
  blanket around the earth.
• Photosynthesis takes CO2 out of atmosphere
• 6CO2 6H2O gt 602 C6H12O6
• Atmospheric warming ? ocean warming ? changes in
  ecosystems ? warm water can hold less CO2 (and
  O2)
• Increasing CO2 in air ? increasing CO2 in water ?
  increases acidity of water ? changes in ecosystem

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Keeling curve
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C. Loss of biodiversity

• HIPPCO
• Habitat loss, invasive species, pollution,
  overpopulation of humans, climate change,
  overexploitation
• 6th mass extinction
• Conservation Laws
• Endangered species act
• ID and protect endangered species
• Penalties for jeopardizing species
• CITES
• Bans hunting, capturing, and selling of
  threatened/endangered species