Qualitative Research Techniques

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Qualitative Research Techniques
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Qualitative research

• Qualitative research is a situated activity that
  locates the observer in the world (Denzin and
  Lincoln (eds.), 2003).
• Qualitative research involves the studied use and
  collection of a variety of empirical materials
  case study, personal experience, introspection,
  life story, interview, artifacts, cultural and
  historical texts, observation, focus groups, etc.
  
• Qualitative research emphasizes the qualities of
  the entities

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Qualitative research Case studies ethnography

• Single case design
• Critical case to test a well formulated theory or
  several theories.
• Extreme or unique case - where there is no direct
  comparison cases.
• Revelatory case opportunity to observe and
  analyze a phenomenon previously inaccessible.
• Multiple case design Evidence is more
  compelling, but research is more time consuming.

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Choosing a research site

• Research sites are purposively selected, rather
  than using a random sample (quantitative
  research)
• One site may be selected or a small number
  depending on the research question that is being
  addressed.
• For example, if trying to understand diffusion
  process of a technology you may choose several
  different sites
• When selecting a site consider
• Setting Where the research will take place.
• Actors Who will be observed or interviewed.
• Events What the actors do in the setting.
• Process Evolving nature of events undertaken by
  the actors within the setting.

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Identify the types of data that will be collected

• Observations Observer may be known or role
  concealed
• First-hand knowledge of scene, actors, events
• Researcher may bias responses (if known)
• Interviews Face-face or telephone, one person
  or group
• Controlled by researcher
• But, information obtained in a specific place
  rather than in a natural setting, researcher may
  bias responses
• Documents Company documents, newspaper articles,
  letters
• Thoughtful comments by participants and can be
  viewed at a time convenient to researcher
• But, may require scanning and may be incomplete
  or not accurate
• Audio-visual materials photographs, videotapes,
  computer software
• But, may be difficult to interpret

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Research Design Exercise

• Research question
• If you have your own defined research question
  and expect to use a qualitative methodology write
  down answers to the questions 2-6 below.
• If not, consider one of the following question
  Why do some Masters level students go on to have
  more successful careers than others? or Why do
  some Masters level students get better grades
  than others?
• These are a very broad question and to actually
  find the link between the studies (or the
  students on a course) and career/course success
  you would probably need to do some narrowing. How
  would you narrow the above question?
• To find evidence to support an explanation for
  the question what type of data would you collect?
• How would you access the data?
• Setting Where will the research take place?
• Actors Who will be observed or interviewed?
• What types of events or processes would you look
  for?

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Qualitative tools used most commonly are

• Interviewing
• Participation and observation (perhaps during
  your internships, your job, etc?)

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I) Interview as a tool

• Individual (face-to-face or telephone) or group
  (face-to-face)
• Structured, semi-structured or unstructured.
• Exploratory, or for measurement purposes
• Single or multiple sessions

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Group interviews

• This is a qualitative data gathering technique
  that relies upon the systematic questioning of
  several individuals simultaneously in a formal or
  informal setting (Focus groups)
• E.g., market research where the purpose is to
  gather consumer opinion on product
  characteristics, advertising themes or services
  delivery.
• Could be used for exploratory research, to
  pretest questionnaire wording, measurement scales
  or in conjunction with other data gathering
  techniques.

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Advantages of group interviews over individual
interviews

• Relatively inexpensive to conduct
• Often produce rich data that are cumulative and
  elaborative.
• Aid recall

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Limitations of group interviews

• The interviewer needs to prevent one person or
  small coalitions of persons from dominating the
  group.
• The interviewer must encourage reluctant/submissiv
  e respondents to participate.
• The interviewer must obtain responses from the
  entire group to ensure the fullest coverage of
  the topic.
• May interfere with individual expression, may
  create groupthink.

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Structured versus unstructured interviews

• Structured interviews aim at capturing precise
  data that can be coded in order to explain
  behavior within pre-established categories.

• Unstructured interviews attempt to understand the
  complex behaviours of members of a society
  without imposing any prior categorization that
  may limit the field of inquiry.

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Structured interviews (Converse and Schuman,
1974).

• All respondents are asked the same series of
  pre-established questions with a limited set of
  response categories.
• Responses are recorded according to the coding
  scheme that has already been established.
• Interviewer plays a neutral role never
  interjecting his or her opinion of a respondents
  answer

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Errors of structured interviews

• Respondent Behavior socially desirable
  response, omit relevant information, faulty
  memory
• Sequence or wording of questionnaire
• The interviewer
• Interviewing skills are not simply motor skills
  like riding a bicycle rather they involve
  high-order combination of observation, empathic
  sensitivity and intellectual judgment (Gorden,
  1992, pp. 7)
• Might overlook emotional response

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Different stages of unstructured interviews

• Gaining Access
• Understanding the language and culture of the
  respondent
• Decide on how to present oneself
• Locating an informant
• Gaining trust
• Establishing rapport risk of going native
• Collecting empirical material take field notes,
  note down observations even if they seem
  unimportant at that time, try to be
  inconspicuous, analyze notes frequently

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Data recording procedures for semi-structured
interviews

• Use a protocol, heading to include time/date,
  place, interviewee. Record interview where
  possible, but also make notes.
• Ice-breaker question
• 4-6 key questions derived from research plan
• Probes for each of the questions in case
  interviewee needs more prompting
• Space between questions to write notes
• Final question, e.g. who obtain more information
  from
• Thank you statement

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Interview Exercise

• Research Question
• If you have your own defined research question
  and expect to use a qualitative methodology write
  down answers to the questions below.
• If not, consider the following questions Why do
  some Masters level students go on to have more
  successful careers than others?
• or Why do some Masters level students get better
  grades than others?
• What type of interviews would you conduct? Why?
• Design an interview protocol
• Heading to include time/date, place, interviewee.
  
• Ice-breaker question
• 4-6 key questions derived from research plan
• Probes for each of the questions in case
  interviewee needs more prompting

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II) Participation-observation as a tool

• Used by researchers who have deliberately set out
  to achieve a degree of subjective immersion in
  the culture they study (Cole, 1983) and yet try
  to be able to maintain their scientific
  objectivity.

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Types of participation-observation (Gold, 1958)

• The complete participant (a highly subjective
  stance whose only scientific validity is
  suspect).
• The participant-as-an-observer.
• The observer-as-a-participant.
• The complete observer.
• Ethical concern informed consent
• IMPORTANT Participation observation alone is not
  a credible method of data collection.

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Data recording procedures for observations
(complete observer or observer as participant)

• Use a protocol, e.g. page with a line down the
  middle
• On one side record observations, dialogue,
  physical setting
• On other side record personal thoughts,
  reflections, ideas, etc.

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Data analysis

• Sensemaking of data guided by research question
• Iterative process. Write memos reflecting on
  findings as go through process.
• Process is one of moving from the specific to the
  general.

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Sequence of activities in qualitativedata
analysis

• 1. Organizing and preparation of data for
  analysis transcribe interviews, scan documents,
  type notes
• 2. Familiarization of data by reading through all
  items Obtain a general sense of the data.
  Credibility, patterns, etc.
• 3. Coding By hand or using computer packages
  Categorization and labeling
• 4. Identification of themes or descriptions
• 5. Interrelation of themes and descriptions
• 6. Interpretation of meaning behind themes and
  descriptions
• 7. Checking the validity and reliability of
  information

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Coding steps

• Read all transcripts and jot down ideas
• Pick one transcript and read thoroughly while
  thinking what is this about. Write thoughts in
  margin.
• Repeat for several transcripts and make a list of
  key topics
• Abbreviate list of topics and write codes next to
  appropriate passages
• Turn codes into categories by using most
  descriptive word. Try to reduce categories by
  grouping. Look for themes
• Make a final decision on categories
• Assemble data belonging to each category in one
  place and analyze

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When coding consider the following

• Codes that people would expect to find based upon
  past research
• Unanticipated codes
• Codes that are unusual and of conceptual interest
  
• Coding can be done by hand or using software,
  e.g. MAXqda, Atlas.ti, QSR Nvivo, HyperResearch

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Limitations of content analysis

• Content analysis reify the taken-for-granted
  understandings persons bring to words, terms or
  experiences.
• Content analysis obscures the interpretive
  processes that turn talk into text (Silverman,
  2003).

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Validity checklist (accuracy of findings)

• Check the following
• Take final report or themes (not transcripts)
  back to participants and review for accuracy
• The extent to which you represent all relevant
  views e.g., checking for deviant cases to test
  your interpretation
• Adequate and systematic use of original data
  e.g., using quotations for interviews (rich
  description)
• Consider bias the researcher brings to the study

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Reliability checklist (consistent approach by all
researchers and across all projects/cases)

• Demonstrate that
• Transcripts have been checked for transcription
  mistakes
• Coding remains consistent across transcripts
• Consistency of coding has been maintained by
  multiple researchers (inter-rater reliability)
• The approach to and procedure for data analysis
  is appropriate in the context of your study
• There has been clear documenting of the process
  of generating themes, concepts or theories from
  the data audit trail

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Thank you

• .