Title: Qualitative Research Techniques
1Qualitative Research Techniques
2Qualitative research
- Qualitative research is a situated activity that
locates the observer in the world (Denzin and
Lincoln (eds.), 2003). - Qualitative research involves the studied use and
collection of a variety of empirical materials
case study, personal experience, introspection,
life story, interview, artifacts, cultural and
historical texts, observation, focus groups, etc.
- Qualitative research emphasizes the qualities of
the entities
3Qualitative research Case studies ethnography
- Single case design
- Critical case to test a well formulated theory or
several theories. - Extreme or unique case - where there is no direct
comparison cases. - Revelatory case opportunity to observe and
analyze a phenomenon previously inaccessible. - Multiple case design Evidence is more
compelling, but research is more time consuming.
4Choosing a research site
- Research sites are purposively selected, rather
than using a random sample (quantitative
research) - One site may be selected or a small number
depending on the research question that is being
addressed. - For example, if trying to understand diffusion
process of a technology you may choose several
different sites - When selecting a site consider
- Setting Where the research will take place.
- Actors Who will be observed or interviewed.
- Events What the actors do in the setting.
- Process Evolving nature of events undertaken by
the actors within the setting.
5Identify the types of data that will be collected
- Observations Observer may be known or role
concealed - First-hand knowledge of scene, actors, events
- Researcher may bias responses (if known)
- Interviews Face-face or telephone, one person
or group - Controlled by researcher
- But, information obtained in a specific place
rather than in a natural setting, researcher may
bias responses - Documents Company documents, newspaper articles,
letters - Thoughtful comments by participants and can be
viewed at a time convenient to researcher - But, may require scanning and may be incomplete
or not accurate - Audio-visual materials photographs, videotapes,
computer software - But, may be difficult to interpret
6Research Design Exercise
- Research question
- If you have your own defined research question
and expect to use a qualitative methodology write
down answers to the questions 2-6 below. - If not, consider one of the following question
Why do some Masters level students go on to have
more successful careers than others? or Why do
some Masters level students get better grades
than others? - These are a very broad question and to actually
find the link between the studies (or the
students on a course) and career/course success
you would probably need to do some narrowing. How
would you narrow the above question? - To find evidence to support an explanation for
the question what type of data would you collect? - How would you access the data?
- Setting Where will the research take place?
- Actors Who will be observed or interviewed?
- What types of events or processes would you look
for?
7Qualitative tools used most commonly are
- Interviewing
- Participation and observation (perhaps during
your internships, your job, etc?)
8I) Interview as a tool
- Individual (face-to-face or telephone) or group
(face-to-face) - Structured, semi-structured or unstructured.
- Exploratory, or for measurement purposes
- Single or multiple sessions
9Group interviews
- This is a qualitative data gathering technique
that relies upon the systematic questioning of
several individuals simultaneously in a formal or
informal setting (Focus groups) - E.g., market research where the purpose is to
gather consumer opinion on product
characteristics, advertising themes or services
delivery. - Could be used for exploratory research, to
pretest questionnaire wording, measurement scales
or in conjunction with other data gathering
techniques.
10Advantages of group interviews over individual
interviews
- Relatively inexpensive to conduct
- Often produce rich data that are cumulative and
elaborative. - Aid recall
11Limitations of group interviews
- The interviewer needs to prevent one person or
small coalitions of persons from dominating the
group. - The interviewer must encourage reluctant/submissiv
e respondents to participate. - The interviewer must obtain responses from the
entire group to ensure the fullest coverage of
the topic. - May interfere with individual expression, may
create groupthink.
12Structured versus unstructured interviews
- Structured interviews aim at capturing precise
data that can be coded in order to explain
behavior within pre-established categories.
- Unstructured interviews attempt to understand the
complex behaviours of members of a society
without imposing any prior categorization that
may limit the field of inquiry.
13Structured interviews (Converse and Schuman,
1974).
- All respondents are asked the same series of
pre-established questions with a limited set of
response categories. - Responses are recorded according to the coding
scheme that has already been established. - Interviewer plays a neutral role never
interjecting his or her opinion of a respondents
answer
14Errors of structured interviews
- Respondent Behavior socially desirable
response, omit relevant information, faulty
memory - Sequence or wording of questionnaire
- The interviewer
- Interviewing skills are not simply motor skills
like riding a bicycle rather they involve
high-order combination of observation, empathic
sensitivity and intellectual judgment (Gorden,
1992, pp. 7) - Might overlook emotional response
15Different stages of unstructured interviews
- Gaining Access
- Understanding the language and culture of the
respondent - Decide on how to present oneself
- Locating an informant
- Gaining trust
- Establishing rapport risk of going native
- Collecting empirical material take field notes,
note down observations even if they seem
unimportant at that time, try to be
inconspicuous, analyze notes frequently
16Data recording procedures for semi-structured
interviews
- Use a protocol, heading to include time/date,
place, interviewee. Record interview where
possible, but also make notes. - Ice-breaker question
- 4-6 key questions derived from research plan
- Probes for each of the questions in case
interviewee needs more prompting - Space between questions to write notes
- Final question, e.g. who obtain more information
from - Thank you statement
17Interview Exercise
- Research Question
- If you have your own defined research question
and expect to use a qualitative methodology write
down answers to the questions below. - If not, consider the following questions Why do
some Masters level students go on to have more
successful careers than others? - or Why do some Masters level students get better
grades than others? - What type of interviews would you conduct? Why?
- Design an interview protocol
- Heading to include time/date, place, interviewee.
- Ice-breaker question
- 4-6 key questions derived from research plan
- Probes for each of the questions in case
interviewee needs more prompting
18II) Participation-observation as a tool
- Used by researchers who have deliberately set out
to achieve a degree of subjective immersion in
the culture they study (Cole, 1983) and yet try
to be able to maintain their scientific
objectivity.
19Types of participation-observation (Gold, 1958)
- The complete participant (a highly subjective
stance whose only scientific validity is
suspect). - The participant-as-an-observer.
- The observer-as-a-participant.
- The complete observer.
- Ethical concern informed consent
- IMPORTANT Participation observation alone is not
a credible method of data collection.
20Data recording procedures for observations
(complete observer or observer as participant)
- Use a protocol, e.g. page with a line down the
middle - On one side record observations, dialogue,
physical setting - On other side record personal thoughts,
reflections, ideas, etc.
21Data analysis
- Sensemaking of data guided by research question
- Iterative process. Write memos reflecting on
findings as go through process. - Process is one of moving from the specific to the
general.
22Sequence of activities in qualitativedata
analysis
- 1. Organizing and preparation of data for
analysis transcribe interviews, scan documents,
type notes - 2. Familiarization of data by reading through all
items Obtain a general sense of the data.
Credibility, patterns, etc. - 3. Coding By hand or using computer packages
Categorization and labeling - 4. Identification of themes or descriptions
- 5. Interrelation of themes and descriptions
- 6. Interpretation of meaning behind themes and
descriptions - 7. Checking the validity and reliability of
information
23Coding steps
- Read all transcripts and jot down ideas
- Pick one transcript and read thoroughly while
thinking what is this about. Write thoughts in
margin. - Repeat for several transcripts and make a list of
key topics - Abbreviate list of topics and write codes next to
appropriate passages - Turn codes into categories by using most
descriptive word. Try to reduce categories by
grouping. Look for themes - Make a final decision on categories
- Assemble data belonging to each category in one
place and analyze
24When coding consider the following
- Codes that people would expect to find based upon
past research - Unanticipated codes
- Codes that are unusual and of conceptual interest
- Coding can be done by hand or using software,
e.g. MAXqda, Atlas.ti, QSR Nvivo, HyperResearch
25Limitations of content analysis
- Content analysis reify the taken-for-granted
understandings persons bring to words, terms or
experiences. - Content analysis obscures the interpretive
processes that turn talk into text (Silverman,
2003).
26Validity checklist (accuracy of findings)
- Check the following
- Take final report or themes (not transcripts)
back to participants and review for accuracy - The extent to which you represent all relevant
views e.g., checking for deviant cases to test
your interpretation - Adequate and systematic use of original data
e.g., using quotations for interviews (rich
description) - Consider bias the researcher brings to the study
27Reliability checklist (consistent approach by all
researchers and across all projects/cases)
- Demonstrate that
- Transcripts have been checked for transcription
mistakes - Coding remains consistent across transcripts
- Consistency of coding has been maintained by
multiple researchers (inter-rater reliability) - The approach to and procedure for data analysis
is appropriate in the context of your study - There has been clear documenting of the process
of generating themes, concepts or theories from
the data audit trail
28Thank you