Chapter Four: Nonexperimental Methods I: Descriptive Methods, Qualitative Research, and Correlational Studies

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Chapter Four Nonexperimental Methods I
Descriptive Methods, Qualitative Research,and
Correlational Studies
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Descriptive Methods
3
Descriptive Methods

• Descriptive methods do not involve manipulation
  of an independent variable.

4
Descriptive Methods

• Descriptive Methods
• Do not involve manipulation of an independent
  variable
• When we use descriptive methods, we can only
  speculate about causation that may be involved.

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Descriptive Methods

• Archival and Previously Recorded Sources of Data

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Descriptive Methods

• Archival and Previously Recorded Sources of Data
• Refers to use of data recorded by other
  individuals for other purposes

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Descriptive Methods

• Archival and Previously Recorded Sources of Data
• Refers to use of data recorded by other
  individuals for other purposes
• (e.g. public health and census data)

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Descriptive Methods

• Archival and Previously Recorded Sources of Data
• Refers to use of data recorded by other
  individuals for other purposes
• (e.g. public health and census data)
• The General Social Survey is an archival source
  that can be accessed online
• http//www.icpsr.umich.edu8080/GSS/

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Descriptive Methods

• Archival and Previously Recorded Sources of Data
• Potential Problems
• You will not know exactly who left the data you
  are investigating.

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Descriptive Methods

• Archival and Previously Recorded Sources of Data
• Potential Problems
• You will not know exactly who left the data you
  are investigating.
• The participants may have been selective in what
  they chose to write.
• This problem is also known as selective deposit.

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Descriptive Methods

• Archival and Previously Recorded Sources of Data
• Potential Problems
• You will not know exactly who left the data you
  are investigating.
• The participants may have been selective in what
  they chose to write.
• Archival and previously recorded sources of data
  may not survive long enough for you to make use
  of them.

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Descriptive Methods

• Comparisons with the Experimental Method

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Descriptive Methods

• Comparisons with the Experimental Method
• We are not able to exercise any control with
  regard to gathering these data and cannot make
  any statements regarding cause-and-effect.

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Descriptive Methods

• Observational Techniques

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Descriptive Methods

• Observational Techniques
• Case studies

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Descriptive Methods

• Observational Techniques
• Case studies
• Involves intense observation and recording of
  behavior of a single (perhaps two) participant(s)
  over an extended period of time.

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Descriptive Methods

• Observational Techniques
• Case studies
• Involves intense observation and recording of
  behavior of a single (perhaps two) participant(s)
  over an extended period of time.
• There are no guidelines for conducting a case
  study and the procedures employed, behaviors
  observed, and reports produced may vary
  substantially.

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Descriptive Methods

• Observational Techniques
• Case studies
• Involves intense observation and recording of
  behavior of a single (perhaps two) participant(s)
  over an extended period of time.
• There are no guidelines for conducting a case
  study and the procedures employed, behaviors
  observed, and reports produced may vary
  substantially.
• Frequently used in clinical settings to help
  formulate ideas and hypotheses for further
  research.

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Descriptive Methods

• Observational Techniques
• Case Studies
• Naturalistic Observation

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Descriptive Methods

• Observational Techniques
• Naturalistic Observation
• Involves seeking answers to research questions by
  observing behavior in the real world.

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Descriptive Methods

• Observational Techniques
• Naturalistic Observation
• Involves seeking answers to research questions by
  observing behavior in the real world.
• The first goal of naturalistic observation is to
  describe behavior as it occurs in the natural
  setting without the artificiality of the
  laboratory.

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Descriptive Methods

• Observational Techniques
• Naturalistic Observation
• Involves seeking answers to research questions by
  observing behavior in the real world.
• The first goal of naturalistic observation is to
  describe behavior as it occurs in the natural
  setting without the artificiality of the
  laboratory.
• The second goal of naturalistic observation is to
  describe the variables that are present and the
  relations among them.

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Psychological Detective

• Why should the researcher be concealed or
  unobtrusive in a study using naturalistic
  observation?

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Psychological Detective

• Why should the researcher be concealed or
  unobtrusive in a study using naturalistic
  observation?
• The reactance or reactivity effect

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Psychological Detective

• Why should the researcher be concealed or
  unobtrusive in a study using naturalistic
  observation?
• The reactance or reactivity effect
• Refers to biasing of the participants responses
  because they know they are being observed.

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Psychological Detective

• Why should the researcher be concealed or
  unobtrusive in a study using naturalistic
  observation?
• The reactance or reactivity effect
• Refers to biasing of the participants responses
  because they know they are being observed.
• The reactivity effect is also known as the
  Hawthorne effect because of the location of the
  original study.

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Descriptive Methods

• Participant Observation
• The researcher becomes part of the group being
  studied.

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Descriptive Methods

• Participant Observation
• The researcher becomes part of the group being
  studied.
• Often used when the goal of the research project
  is to learn something about a specific culture or
  socioeconomic group.

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Descriptive Methods

• Participant Observation
• The researcher becomes part of the group being
  studied.
• Often used when the goal of the research project
  is to learn something about a specific culture or
  socioeconomic group.
• Ethnography is a form of participant observation
  based on the anthropological tradition of
  research.

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Descriptive Methods

• Participant Observation
• The researcher becomes part of the group being
  studied.
• Often used when the goal of the research project
  is to learn something about a specific culture or
  socioeconomic group.
• Ethnography is a form of participant observation
  based on the anthropological tradition of
  research.
• Observer as participant refers to a researcher
  who primarily observes a situation but who
  interacts with the others (Glesne, 1999).

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Descriptive Methods

• Participant Observation
• The researcher becomes part of the group being
  studied.
• Often used when the goal of the research project
  is to learn something about a specific culture or
  socioeconomic group.
• Ethnography is a form of participant observation
  based on the anthropological tradition of
  research.
• Observer as participant refers to a researcher
  who primarily observes a situation but who
  interacts with the others (Glesne, 1999).
• Participant as observer refers to the
  researcher who becomes a part of the culture by
  working and interacting extensively with the
  others (Glesne, 1999).

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Psychological Detective

• What are the drawbacks and weaknesses of the
  participant observer technique?

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Psychological Detective

• What are the drawbacks and weaknesses of the
  participant observer technique?
• An extended period of time may be necessary
  before the participant observer is accepted as a
  member of the group that is under study.

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Psychological Detective

• What are the drawbacks and weaknesses of the
  participant observer technique?
• An extended period of time may be necessary
  before the participant observer is accepted as a
  member of the group that is under study.
• Cannot make cause-and-effect statements.

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Descriptive Methods

• Clinical perspective

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Descriptive Methods

• Clinical perspective
• Schein (1987) argued convincingly that the
  clinical perspective or model is not a
  subcategory of participant observation because

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Descriptive Methods

• Clinical perspective
• Schein (1987) argued convincingly that the
  clinical perspective or model is not a
  subcategory of participant observation because
• A client typically chooses the clinician, whereas
  the participant observer chooses the others to be
  studied.

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Descriptive Methods

• Clinical perspective
• Schein (1987) argued convincingly that the
  clinical perspective or model is not a
  subcategory of participant observation because
• A client typically chooses the clinician, whereas
  the participant observer chooses the others to be
  studied.
• Unlike participant observers, clinicians cannot
  be unobtrusive because they have been asked to
  participate in the situation.

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Descriptive Methods

• Clinical perspective
• Schein (1987) argued convincingly that the
  clinical perspective or model is not a
  subcategory of participant observation because
• A client typically chooses the clinician, whereas
  the participant observer chooses the others to be
  studied.
• Unlike participant observers, clinicians cannot
  be unobtrusive because they have been asked to
  participate in the situation.
• Although the participant observer can remain
  passive, clinicians must intervene in the
  situation.

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Descriptive Methods

• Clinical perspective
• Schein (1987) argued convincingly that the
  clinical perspective or model is not a
  subcategory of participant observation because
• A client typically chooses the clinician, whereas
  the participant observer chooses the others to be
  studied.
• Unlike participant observers, clinicians cannot
  be unobtrusive because they have been asked to
  participate in the situation.
• Although the participant observer can remain
  passive, clinicians must intervene in the
  situation.
• The participant observers goal is understanding,
  whereas the clinicians goal is helping.

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Descriptive Methods

• Clinical perspective
• Schein (1987) argued convincingly that the
  clinical perspective or model is not a
  subcategory of participant observation because
• A client typically chooses the clinician, whereas
  the participant observer chooses the others to be
  studied.
• Unlike participant observers, clinicians cannot
  be unobtrusive because they have been asked to
  participate in the situation.
• Although the participant observer can remain
  passive, clinicians must intervene in the
  situation.
• The participant observers goal is understanding,
  whereas the clinicians goal is helping.
• Participant observers validate their findings by
  replication while clinicians validate their
  findings by being able to predict the results of
  a given intervention.

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Descriptive Methods

• Choosing Behaviors and Recording Techniques.

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Descriptive Methods

• Choosing Behaviors and Recording Techniques.
• Time sampling

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Descriptive Methods

• Choosing Behaviors and Recording Techniques.
• Time sampling
• Involves making observations at different time
  periods in order to obtain a more representative
  sampling of the behavior of interest.

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Descriptive Methods

• Choosing Behaviors and Recording Techniques.
• Time sampling
• Involves making observations at different time
  periods in order to obtain a more representative
  sampling of the behavior of interest.
• Selection of time periods may be determined
  randomly or in a more systematic manner.

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Descriptive Methods

• Choosing Behaviors and Recording Techniques.
• Time sampling
• Involves making observations at different time
  periods in order to obtain a more representative
  sampling of the behavior of interest.
• The use of time sampling may apply to the same or
  different participants.

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Descriptive Methods

• Choosing Behaviors and Recording Techniques.
• Situation sampling

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Descriptive Methods

• Choosing Behaviors and Recording Techniques.
• Situation sampling
• Involves observing the same behavior in several
  different situations. This techniques offers the
  researcher two advantages

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Descriptive Methods

• Choosing Behaviors and Recording Techniques.
• Situation sampling
• Involves observing the same behavior in several
  different situations. This techniques offers the
  researcher two advantages
• By sampling behavior in several different
  situations, you are able to determine whether the
  behavior in question changes as a function of the
  context in which you observed it.

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Descriptive Methods

• Choosing Behaviors and Recording Techniques.
• Situation sampling
• Involves observing the same behavior in several
  different situations. This techniques offers the
  researcher two advantages
• By sampling behavior in several different
  situations, you are able to determine whether the
  behavior in question changes as a function of the
  context in which you observed it.
• You are likely to observe different participants
  in the different situations and because different
  individuals are observed, your ability to
  generalize any behavioral consistencies across
  the various situations is increased.

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Descriptive Methods

• Deciding how to present the results of your
  research project.

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Descriptive Methods

• Deciding how to present the results of your
  research project.
• Qualitative presentation of results

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Descriptive Methods

• Deciding how to present the results of your
  research project.
• Qualitative presentation of results
• Report consists of a description of the behavior
  in question (a narrative record) and the
  conclusions prompted by this description.

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Descriptive Methods

• Deciding how to present the results of your
  research project.
• Qualitative presentation of results
• Report consists of a description of the behavior
  in question (a narrative record) and the
  conclusions prompted by this description.
• Quantitative or numerical presentation of
  results

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Descriptive Methods

• Deciding how to present the results of your
  research project.
• Qualitative presentation of results
• Report consists of a description of the behavior
  in question (a narrative record) and the
  conclusions prompted by this description.
• Quantitative or numerical presentation of
  results
• Need to know how behavior under investigation is
  going to be measured and how these measurements
  will be analyzed.

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Descriptive Methods

• Using More than One Observer

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Descriptive Methods

• Using More than One Observer
• There are two main reasons for using more than
  one observer

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Descriptive Methods

• Using More than One Observer
• There are two main reasons for using more than
  one observer
• One observer may miss or overlook a bit of
  behavior.

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Descriptive Methods

• Using More than One Observer
• There are two main reasons for using more than
  one observer
• One observer may miss or overlook a bit of
  behavior.
• There may be some disagreement concerning exactly
  what was seen and how it should be rated or
  categorized.

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Descriptive Methods

• Using More than One Observer
• When two individuals observe the same behavior,
  it is possible to see how well their observations
  agree.

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Descriptive Methods

• Using More than One Observer
• When two individuals observe the same behavior,
  it is possible to see how well their observations
  agree.
• The extent to which the observers agree is called
  interobserver reliability.

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Descriptive Methods

• Using More than One Observer
• When two individuals observe the same behavior,
  it is possible to see how well their observations
  agree.
• The extent to which the observers agree is called
  interobserver reliability.
• Low interobserver reliability indicates that the
  observers disagree about the behavior(s) they
  observed.

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Descriptive Methods

• Using More than One Observer
• When two individuals observe the same behavior,
  it is possible to see how well their observations
  agree.
• The extent to which the observers agree is called
  interobserver reliability.
• Low interobserver reliability indicates that the
  observers disagree about the behavior(s) they
  observed.
• High interobserver reliability indicates
  agreement.

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Descriptive Methods

• Here is the formula for calculating interobserver
  reliability
• of times observers agree
• ______________________ X 100 percent of
  agreement
• of opportunities to agree
• 85 agreement is generally considered to be an
  acceptable minimum level for interobserver
  reliability.

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Qualitative Research
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Qualitative Research

• The qualitative researcher believes that a full
  description of human behavior includes peoples
  feelings in addition to what they are doing and
  how they are doing it.

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Qualitative Research

• Qualitative research
• is defined as an inquiry process of
  understanding a social or human problem, based on
  building a complex, holistic picture, formed with
  words, reporting detailed views of informants,
  and conducted in a natural setting (Creswell,
  1994, p. 2)

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Qualitative Research

• Qualitative research
• is defined as an inquiry process of
  understanding a social or human problem, based on
  building a complex, holistic picture, formed with
  words, reporting detailed views of informants,
  and conducted in a natural setting (Creswell,
  1994, p. 2)
• The qualitative research style is much less
  formal and impersonal, and the reader of a
  qualitative research report can expect to find
  such additions as definitions that evolved
  during a study (Creswell, 1994, p. 7)

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Qualitative Research

• The qualitative researcher believes that a full
  description of human behavior includes peoples
  feelings in addition to what they are doing and
  how they are doing it.

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Qualitative Research

• The qualitative researcher believes that a full
  description of human behavior includes peoples
  feelings in addition to what they are doing and
  how they are doing it.
• The qualitative researcher is committed to
  studying particular people in specific settings.

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Qualitative Research

• The qualitative researcher believes that a full
  description of human behavior includes peoples
  feelings in addition to what they are doing and
  how they are doing it.
• The qualitative researcher is committed to
  studying particular people in specific settings.
• Qualitative researchers prefer to use inductive
  logic.

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Qualitative Research

• The qualitative researcher believes that a full
  description of human behavior includes peoples
  feelings in addition to what they are doing and
  how they are doing it.
• The qualitative researcher is committed to
  studying particular people in specific settings.
• Qualitative researchers prefer to use inductive
  logic.
• Qualitative research begins with guiding
  hypotheses reflecting a global issue of interest
  (Marshall Rossman, 1989).

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Qualitative Research

• The qualitative researcher believes that a full
  description of human behavior includes peoples
  feelings in addition to what they are doing and
  how they are doing it.
• The qualitative researcher is committed to
  studying particular people in specific settings.
• Qualitative researchers prefer to use inductive
  logic.
• Qualitative research begins with guiding
  hypotheses reflecting a global issue of interest
  (Marshall Rossman, 1989).
• Qualitative researchers typically analyze their
  data simultaneously with data collection, data
  interpretation, and narrative reporting writing
  (Creswell, 1994, p. 153).

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Qualitative Research

• The qualitative researcher believes that a full
  description of human behavior includes peoples
  feelings in addition to what they are doing and
  how they are doing it.
• The qualitative researcher is committed to
  studying particular people in specific settings.
• Qualitative researchers prefer to use inductive
  logic.
• Qualitative research begins with guiding
  hypotheses reflecting a global issue of interest
  (Marshall Rossman, 1989).
• Qualitative researchers typically analyze their
  data simultaneously with data collection, data
  interpretation, and narrative reporting writing
  (Creswell, 1994, p. 153).
• Grounded theory is one of the most popular forms
  of contemporary qualitative research.

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Qualitative Research

• Grounded Theory (Strauss Corbin, 1990)

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Qualitative Research

• Grounded Theory (Strauss Corbin, 1990)
• The ultimate goal of this approach is to derive
  theories that are grounded in (based on) reality.

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Qualitative Research

• Grounded Theory (Strauss Corbin, 1990)
• The ultimate goal of this approach is to derive
  theories that are grounded in (based on) reality.
• Grounded theory is not advocated for all types of
  research questions.

78
Qualitative Research

• Grounded Theory (Strauss Corbin, 1990)
• The ultimate goal of this approach is to derive
  theories that are grounded in (based on) reality.
• Grounded theory is not advocated for all types of
  research questions.
• Knowing the literature too well can hamper the
  creativity necessary to doing grounded theory
  research.

79
Qualitative Research

• Grounded Theory (Strauss Corbin, 1990)
• The ultimate goal of this approach is to derive
  theories that are grounded in (based on) reality.
• Grounded theory is not advocated for all types of
  research questions.
• Knowing the literature too well can hamper the
  creativity necessary to doing grounded theory
  research.
• The heart of the grounded theory approach occurs
  in its use of coding, which is analogous to data
  analysis in quantitative approaches.

80
Qualitative Research

• Types of coding in grounded theory research
  (Strauss Corbin, 1990)

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Qualitative Research

• Types of coding in grounded theory research
  (Strauss Corbin, 1990)
• Open coding

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Qualitative Research

• Types of coding in grounded theory research
  (Strauss Corbin, 1990)
• Open coding
• The researcher labels and categorizes the
  phenomena being studied.

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Qualitative Research

• Types of coding in grounded theory research
  (Strauss Corbin, 1990)
• Open coding
• The researcher labels and categorizes the
  phenomena being studied.
• Axial coding

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Qualitative Research

• Types of coding in grounded theory research
  (Strauss Corbin, 1990)
• Open coding
• The researcher labels and categorizes the
  phenomena being studied.
• Axial coding
• Involves finding links between categories and
  subcategories from open coding.

85
Qualitative Research

• Types of coding in grounded theory research
  (Strauss Corbin, 1990)
• Open coding
• The researcher labels and categorizes the
  phenomena being studied.
• Axial coding
• Involves finding links between categories and
  subcategories from open coding.
• Selective coding

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Qualitative Research

• Types of coding in grounded theory research
  (Strauss Corbin, 1990)
• Open coding
• The researcher labels and categorizes the
  phenomena being studied.
• Axial coding
• Involves finding links between categories and
  subcategories from open coding.
• Selective coding
• Entails identifying a core category and relating
  the subsidiary categories to this core.

87
Qualitative Research

• Grounded Theory (Strauss Corbin, 1990)
• From the process of selective coding, the
  grounded theory researcher moves toward
  developing a model of process and a transactional
  system, which essentially tells the story of the
  outcome of the research.

88
Qualitative Research

• Grounded Theory (Strauss Corbin, 1990)
• From the process of selective coding, the
  grounded theory researcher moves toward
  developing a model of process and a transactional
  system, which essentially tells the story of the
  outcome of the research.
• Process refers to a linking of actions and
  interactions that result in some outcome .

89
Qualitative Research

• Grounded Theory (Strauss Corbin, 1990)
• From the process of selective coding, the
  grounded theory researcher moves toward
  developing a model of process and a transactional
  system, which essentially tells the story of the
  outcome of the research.
• Process refers to a linking of actions and
  interactions that result in some outcome .
• A transactional system is grounded theorys
  analytical method that allows an examination of
  the interactions of different events. The
  transactional system is depicted in a conditional
  matrix such as that shown in figure 4.2

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Correlational Studies

• A correlational study involves the measurement
  and determination of the relation between two
  variables

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Correlational Studies

• The Nature of Correlations

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Correlational Studies

• The Nature of Correlations
• Three basic patterns may emerge
• Positive correlation

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Correlational Studies

• The Nature of Correlations
• Three basic patterns may emerge
• Positive correlation
• As one variable increases, scores on the other
  variable also increase.
• A perfect positive correlation has a correlation
  coefficient of 1.

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Correlational Studies

• The Nature of Correlations
• Three basic patterns may emerge
• Positive correlation
• As one variable increases, scores on the other
  variable also increase.
• Negative correlation

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Correlational Studies

• The Nature of Correlations
• Three basic patterns may emerge
• Positive correlation
• As one variable increases, scores on the other
  variable also increase.
• Negative correlation
• Indicates that an increase in one variable is
  accompanied by a decrease in the second variable.
• A perfect negative correlation has a correlation
  coefficient of 1.

96
Correlational Studies

• The Nature of Correlations
• Three basic patterns may emerge
• Positive correlation
• As one variable increases, scores on the other
  variable also increase.
• Negative correlation
• Indicates that an increase in one variable is
  accompanied by a decrease in the second variable.
• Zero correlation

97
Correlational Studies

• The Nature of Correlations
• Three basic patterns may emerge
• Positive correlation
• As one variable increases, scores on the other
  variable also increase.
• Negative correlation
• Indicates that an increase in one variable is
  accompanied by a decrease in the second variable.
• Zero correlation
• Indicates a lack of relation between the two
  variables.
• The correlation coefficient for a zero
  correlation is zero (or close to zero).