Structuring and Analyzing Arguments: The Classical, Toulmin, and Rogerian Models

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Structuring and Analyzing Arguments The
Classical, Toulmin, and Rogerian Models

• AP Language and Composition

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Classical Argument

• Began in ancient Greece, approximately fifth
  century B.C.
• Communicated orally and designed to be easily
  understood by listeners
• Based on formal logic, including the syllogism
• Formal Logic abstract disciplinedeals with
  absolutes.

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CLASSICALThe Five Canons of
Rhetoric(Categories)

• Invention
• Arrangement
• Style
• Memory (oratory)
• Delivery (oratory)

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1. Invention

• Coming up with ideas for speaking and/or writing
• Ethos, Logos, Pathos APPEALS Tools for both
  analyzing and creating effective arguments
• 3 Artistic Proofs
• Writer controls
• Writer must use
• Writer, however, must balance

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Key Terms Deductive vs. Inductive Reasoning

• Deductive Reasoning in traditional Aristotelian
  logic, the process of reasoning in which a
  conclusion follows necessarily from the stated
  premises inference by reasoning from the general
  to the specific
• Inductive Reasoning the process of reasoning
  from the specific to the general, in which the
  premises of an argument are believed to support
  the conclusion but do not ensure it. Inductive
  reasoning is used to formulate laws based on
  limited observations of recurring patterns.

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Key Terms The Syllogism

• Three-part deductive argument, in which
  conclusion follows from two premises
• A straightforward example
• Major premise All people have hearts.
• Minor premise John is a person.
• Conclusion Therefore, John has a heart.

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Key Terms The Enthymeme

• The two most powerful tools Enthymeme and
  Example
• Shortened syllogism more practical
• A straightforward example
• Syllogism
• Major premise All people are mortal.
• Minor premise John is a person.
• Conclusion Therefore, John is mortal.
• Enthymeme John is mortal because he is a person.

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2. Arrangement

• Exordium
• Narratio
• Propositio
• Confirmatio/Refutatio
• Peroratio

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REVIEW

• What is invention in Rhetoric?
• What is Ethos?
• What is Logos?
• What is Pathos?
• How do the three appeals WORK TOGETHER to
  persuade an audience?
• What is a syllogism? An enthymeme?
• How you derive an enthymeme from a syllogism?
• Why is an enthymeme more useful in argumentation?
• What is arrangement? Why is it important in
  argumentation (analyzing AND constructing)?
• What is Style?
• What effect does style have in communicating an
  argument to an audience?

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Classical Argument Arrangement of Elements

• 1) Introduction captures attention of audience
  urges audience to consider your case
• 2) Statement of Background narrates the key
  facts and/or events leading up to your case
• 3) Proposition states the position you are
  taking, based on the information youve already
  presented, and sets up the structure of the rest
  of your argument
• 4) Proof discusses your reasons for your
  position and provides evidence to support each
  reason
• 5) Refutation anticipates opposing viewpoints
  then demonstrates why your approach is the only
  acceptable one (i.e. better than your opponents)
• 6) Conclusion summarizes your most important
  points and can include appeals to feelings or
  values (pathos)

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3. Style

• Figurative Language
• Metaphor
• Antitheses
• Alliteration
• Anaphora

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Modern Approaches to Argument
Toulmin Rogers
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Modern Rhetorical Triangle
Message (logos)
Rhetorical context
Writer (ethos)
Audience (pathos)
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The Toulmin Model (see also Harbrace pp.
300-303).

• Developed by British philosopher Stephen Toulmin
  in the 1950s
• Emphasizes that logic often based on probability
  rather than certainty
• Focuses on claims
• Informal logic based on probability. Gives good
  reasons, persuasive arguments. Does not attempt
  to prove.
• Acknowledges reasonable arguments of both sides
• Seven components

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Toulmin Model Three Components

• Enthymeme gives the three primary components
• Claim statement of the main point or position
• Data the evidence supporting the claim, aka the
  reasons
• Warrant an underlying/unstated assumption or
  basic principle that connects data and claim as
  said before, perhaps implied rather than explicit

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Toulmin Model Other Components

• Grounds provide actual evidence in support of
  the reasons.
• Examples, statistics, citations, facts
• Backing supports warrant, if needed.
• Conditions of Rebuttal bring up and address
  counter-arguments. Attacks grounds and/or the
  warrant and backing.
• Qualifier limits a claim. Gets rid of absolutes.
  Can prove a claim is faulty if given absolutes
  like always, never..can find exceptions to such
  broad statements.

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Toulmin Argumentation Graphic
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Toulmin Model An Example

• Claim My parents should allow me to go to my
  friends party on Friday night.
• Data The parents of nearly all of the seniors
  at CHS have given their children permission to
  attend this party.
• Warrant My parents should act in accordance
  with the other parents of juniors at CHS.

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Uh-oh, a potential snag

• What if my parents dont buy my warrant?
  What if they dont think they should necessarily
  do what other parents are doing?
• How can I still get permission to attend the
  party? Or at least have a better chance of
  getting permission?

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Try new data and a new warrant.

• What might be more convincing data for an
  audience of parents?
• What might be a warrant that most parents will
  share?

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Rogerian Model

• Developed by psychologist Carl Rogers (also in
  the 50s)
• Emphasizes problem-solving and/or coming to
  consensus
• Mutually acceptable solutions to problems
• Allows the author to appear open-minded or even
  objective
• Appropriate in contexts where you need to
  convince a resistant opponent to at least respect
  your views

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Rogerian Model

• Seeks common ground
• Builds trust
• Reduces threat
• Avoids confrontation/attack
• Gives credit to counterarguments

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Rogerian Arguments Structure

• Introduction statement of problem to be solved
  or question to be answered
• Summary of Opposing Views described using a
  seemingly objective persona
• Statement of Understanding concedes
  circumstances under which opposing views might be
  valid
• Statement of Your Position
• Statement of Contexts describes contexts in
  which your position applies/works well
• Statement of Benefits appeals to self-interest
  of readers who may not yet agree with you
  demonstrates how your position benefits them

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REVIEW

1. What is the rhetorical triangle?
2. What is informal logic?
3. How is informal logic used to make an argument?
4. In informal logic, what is a claim?
5. How does a reason support a claim in informal
   logic?
6. What role does a warrant play in informal logic?
7. What is the goal of Rogerian rhetoric, and how
   does it differ from the goal of traditional
   argumentation?