AP Review

1
AP Review

• Chapters 40-43

2
Fast Facts

• Tissues groups of cells with a common structure
  and function
• - epithelial, connective, nervous, and muscle
• Epithelial tissue
• - covers the outside of the body and lines the
  organs within the body
• - cells are held together by tight junctions

3
Fast Facts

• Connective tissue
• - functions to bind and support other tissues
• - ex. loose connective tissue, adipose tissue,
  fibrous connective tissue, cartilage, bone, and
  blood
• Nervous tissue
• - senses stimuli and transmits signals from one
  part of the animal to another
• - nerve cells, or neurons, are specialized to
  transmit signals

4
Fast Facts

• Muscle tissue
• - composed of long cells called muscle fibers
  that are capable of contracting when stimulated
  by nerve impulses
• - skeletal (striated) muscle, cardiac muscle,
  and smooth muscle

5
Fast Facts

• Animals maintain homeostasis, or internal balance
  within their systems
• Negative feedback a change in the variable being
  monitored triggers the control mechanism to
  counteract further change
• Positive feedback a change in some variable that
  triggers mechanisms that amplify rather than
  reverse change

6
Fast Facts

• Regulated change some are cyclical such as in
  hormone levels in women while others are
  reactions to challenges of the body (like
  infections).

7
Fast Facts

• The flow of energy into and out of an animal can
  be viewed as a budget
• - most of the energy taken in is used to produce
  ATP to power resting metabolism and temperature
  regulation
• - excess ATP can be used for biosynthesis

8
Fast Facts

• The flow of energy into and out of an animal can
  be viewed as a budget
• - most of the energy taken in is used to produce
  ATP to power resting metabolism and temperature
  regulation
• - excess ATP can be used for biosynthesis

9
Fast Facts

• The oral cavity, pharynx, and esophagus initiate
  food processing
• The stomach stores food and performs preliminary
  digestion
• - the stomach secretes gastric juices and mixes
  them with food by a churning motion
• - also present in the gastric juices is pepsin,
  an enzyme that begins the hydrolysis of proteins

10
Fast Facts

• The small intestine is the major organ of
  digestion and absorption
• - the pancreas produces hydrolytic enzymes and an
  alkaline solution
• - the liver produces bile.

11
Fast Facts

• Most absorption occurs in the small intestine
• - s.i. has a large surface area due to the
  folding of the lining into villi
• - each villus has many microscopic appendages
  called microvilli which increase the rate of
  absorption

12
Fast Facts

• In insects blood bathes the organs directly in an
  open circulatory system
• - no distinction between blood and interstitial
  fluid
• In a closed circulatory system, blood is confined
  to vessels and is distinct from interstitial fluid

13
Fast Facts
14
Fast Facts

• Blood consists of several kinds of cells
  suspended in a liquid called plasma
• - blood plasma is 90 water
• - in the plasma are red blood cells (RBC), white
  blood cells (WBC), and platelets
• RBC, or erythrocytes, are the most common blood
  cells
• - main fcn. is to transport O2
• - lack nuclei leaves more space for hemoglobin

15
Fast Facts

• Gas exchange the uptake of oxygen and the
  release of carbon dioxide
• - dont confuse with (cellular) respiration
• Respiratory medium source of oxygen
• - air and water
• Respiratory surface part of an animal where
  gases are exchanged

16
Fast Facts

• The arrangement of capillaries in a fish gill
  enhances gas exchange and reduces the energy cost
  of ventilation
• Countercurrent exchange blood flows in opposite
  direction to the movement of water past the gills
• - as blood moves through the capillary, it
  becomes more and more loaded with oxygen.
  Simultaneously, it encounters water with even
  higher oxygen concentrations.

17
Fast Facts

• Tracheal systems and lungs are respiratory
  adaptations of terrestrial animals
• Tracheal system made up of air tubes that branch
  throughout the body
• Unlike the tracheal systems that branch
  throughout the insects body, the lungs are
  restricted to one location

18
Sample Question

• Structure and function are related in the various
  organ systems of animals. Select two of the
  following four organ systems in vertebrates
  respiratory
• digestive
• excretory
• nervous
• For each of the two systems you choose, discuss
  the structure and function of two adaptations
  that aid in the transport or exchange of
  molecules (or ions). Be sure to relate structure
  to function in each example.

19
Fast Facts

• The skin and mucous membranes provide first-line
  barriers to infection
• Phagocytic cells, inflammation, and antimicrobial
  proteins function early in infection
• Mechanisms depend mainly on phagocytosis the
  ingestion of invading organisms by certain types
  of white cells

20
Fast Facts
21
Fast Facts

• Lymphocytes provide the specificity and diversity
  of the immune system
• Two main types B lymphocytes (B cells) and T
  lymphocytes (T cells)
• - recognize and respond to particular microbes
  and foreign molecules (antigen)
• - B cells secrete proteins (antibodies) to fight
  antigens

22
Fast Facts

• Antigens interact with specific lymphocytes,
  inducing immune responses and immunological
  memory
• - clonal selection the cloning of lymphocytes
  into effector cells (short-lived) and memory
  cells (long-lived)

23
Fast Facts

• The immune system exhibits the feature of
  self-tolerance
• - major histocompatibility complex (MHC) are a
  series of glycoproteins that mark the body as
  self
• - MHC provides a biological fingerprint found
  in studying skin graft rejection and acceptance

24
Fast Facts

• In response to antigens, the immune system can
  mount a humoral response or a cell-mediated
  response
• Humoral immunity attack free antigens
• - B cells form Plasma cells
• - plasma cells secrete antibodies for an
  antigen

25
Fast Facts

• Cell-mediated immunity T cells are active
  against viruses and bacteria that have infected
  cells
• - activated T cells become TH or TC TH activate
  B cells that produce antibodies, TC destroy
  infected body cells

26
Fast Facts
27
Fact Facts

• Homeostasis the ability of animals to regulate
  their internal environment
• - thermoregulation maintaining internal
  temperature
• - osmoregulation regulation of the gain and
  loss of water
• - excretion removal of nitrogen-containing
  waste products

28
Fact Facts

• An animals nitrogenous wastes are correlated
  with its phylogeny and habitat
• - Some animals will excrete ammonia directly,
  but many species will convert it to urea or uric
  acid

29
Fact Facts

• The urinary system is made-up of the kidneys,
  ureters, bladder, and urethra
• - the nephron is the functional unit of the
  kidneys
• - waste is filtered from the blood and collected
  as urine in each kidney

30
Fact Facts

• The nephron has three functions
• - glomerular filtration of water and solutes out
  of the blood
• - tubular reabsorption of water and molecules
  from the tubules back into the blood
• - tubular secretion of waste products into the
  distal tubule

31
Fact Facts

• The nervous system and hormones regulate kidney
  function
• Antidiuretic hormone (ADH) hormone primarily
  responsible for producing urine and regulating
  water balance
• - an antidiuretic is any chemical that prevents
  excessive urine production

32
Fact Facts

• Endocrine system
• - helps control chemical composition and volume
• - ensures successful growth and development
• - gamete production, fertilization, embryo
  development and nourishment, and delivery
• - regulates metabolism
• - regulates response to environmental changes
  (starvation, dehydration, temperature)

33
Fact Facts

• Effects of hormones
• Synergistic effects the effects of two or more
  hormones complement each other response is
  summation of individual effects
• Antagonistic effects the effect of one hormone
  opposes the other
• - ex. insulin lowers blood sugar while glucagon
  raises it

34
Sample Questions

• Feedback mechanisms are used by organisms to
  maintain the steady-state physiological condition
  known as homeostasis. Choose three of the
  following and for each, explain how feedback
  mechanisms maintain homeostasis.
• Blood glucose concentration
• Calcium ion concentration
• Body temperature
• Osmolarity of the blood