Applying Concepts from Cognitive Linguistics to Your Conlang

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Applying Concepts from Cognitive Linguistics to
Your Conlang
Applying Concepts from Cognitive Linguistics to
Your Conlang
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Overview

• What this presentation will cover
• Why you should know about cognitive linguistics
• Specific concepts with implications for
  conlanging
• What this presentation will not cover
• Detailed introduction to cognitive linguistics
  theory
• Aspects of cognitive linguistics not immediately
  applicable to conlanging
• History Basic Premises of Cognitive Linguistics
  available in handout

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Why You Should Know About It

• Obtain deeper understanding of sub-conscious and
  semi-conscious structures of language
• Better ability to avoid inadvertently creating
  language structures which covertly parallel
  English (or your native languages) structures
• Opens up a whole new level of creativity in
  conlang design

So, lets explore some cognitive linguistics
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Spatial Conceptualization

• Through sensory perception, bodily movement, and
  tactile interaction, infants learn to understand
  spatial relationships
• This pre-linguistic, fundamental knowledge of
  space, motion, and the senses becomes the
  foundation for structuring and understanding more
  abstract conceptual domains
• Spatial relationships are understood in terms of
  landmarks, trajectors, and image schemas

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Spatial Conceptualization

• Landmark entity with respect to which some
  other entity moves
• Trajector entity that moves with respect to a
  (relatively) stationary landmark
• Image Schema a recurring, dynamic pattern of
  our perceptual interactions and motor programs
  (Mark Johnson, 1987) i.e., an image schema is a
  generalized, primitive mental abstraction used in
  reasoning to associate percepts with concepts

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Landmarks and Trajectors

• English prepositions dependent on landmark vs.
  trajector distinction
• 1a) I put my foot in(to) the stirrup.1b) ?? I
  put my finger in(to) the ring.
• 2a) ?? I put the stirrup on my foot.2b) I put
  the ring on my finger.
• 3a) I screwed the bulb into the socket.3b) ?? I
  screwed the jar into the lid.
• 4a) ?? I screwed the socket onto the bulb.4b)
  I screwed the lid onto the jar.

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Image Schemas

• Common image schemas
• CONTAINER BALANCE COMPULSIONBLOCKAGE COUNTERF
  ORCE RESTRAINTREMOVAL ENABLEMENT ATTRACTIONMAS
  S-COUNT PATH LINKCYCLE NEAR-FAR CENTER-PERIPH
  ERYSCALE PART-WHOLE MERGINGSPLITTING FULL-EMP
  TY MATCHINGITERATION CONTACT SUPERIMPOSITIONP
  ROCESS SURFACE OBJECTCOLLECTION SOURCE GOAL
• The above schemas map in various combinatory
  ways to specific prepositions, phrases, and other
  words in a language, e.g., English in
  CONTAINER CENTER-PERIPHERY ( FULL-EMPTY)on
  SURFACECONTACT ( CENTER-PERIPHERY)COUNTERFORC
  E

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Image Schemas

• Help to explain seemingly contradictory or
  counter-intuitive usages of prepositions and
  particles, e.g., out
• 1a) The sun is out. The sun came out.1b) The
  light is out. The fire went out.
• 2a) Tom filled in the form.2b) Tom filled out
  the form.
• 3a) The student dropped in this afternoon.3b)
  The student dropped out this afternoon.
• 4a) A big crowd turned up for the rally.4b) A
  big crowd turned out for the rally.

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Image Schemas out
LM landmarkTR trajector
Identical Schema differentiated by perspective
regarding accessibility
Image Schema forThe sun came out.
Image Schema forThe fire went out.
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Image Schemas out
Perspective on accessibility extended to ones
cognitive field, rather than perceptual field

• Examples similar to the sun is/came out
• The news is out.
• The secret is out.
• She spoke out.
• It turned out OK.
• Ive sorted it out.

• Examples similar to the fire is/went out
• The noise drowned me out.
• Shes blotted out the memory.
• Hes hiding out.
• Were out of gas.
• Im tired out.

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Image Schemas Conlanging

• Seemingly arbitrary usages of prepositions and
  particles now explicable
• 5a) Tom filled in the form. CONTAINER schema
• ( form seen as set of containers being
  filled)
• 5b) Tom filled out the form. ADDITIVE schema
• ( form seen as growing in size by adding
  information)

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Image Schemas Conlanging

• So, should my conlangs speakers say
• fill in a form (CONTAINER FULL/EMPTY schema),
  orfill out a form (ADDITIVE schema) or some
  other schema(s) entirely?
• Spots on or in a vase? How about of a
  vase? Wrinkles on or in her skin? How
  about at her skin?Bubbles on or at the
  surface? How about in?Pictures hanging on
  or from the wall? Off the wall?
• Determine what schema combinations can apply to
  various spatial and motion contexts, and how they
  map to your spatial-temporal lexemes

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Image Schemas Conlanging

• Representing schemas morphologically
• While image schemas are cognitively universal,
  the mapping to morphemes/lexemes or
  morpho-syntactic constructions is
  language-specific.
• The resulting morphological constructions and/or
  lexemes are then extended to apply to
  non-spatial, even abstract concepts. What
  limitations or rules should you allow for such
  extensions? E.g., on time, in agony, that
  milk is off, my skills are at a new level
• How about being under love, against agonyor
  with time?

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Image Schemas Conlanging

• Consider (con-)cultural influences
• e.g., the CONTAINER schema
• Baskets, the standard container observed by
  Zapotec infants, are used equally to cover things
  up as they are to put things in.
• Zapotec speakers equate semantic containment with
  both in and under lexico-morphology.
• For alien, non-humanoid conlangs/concultures
• Different sensory array/organs, different bodily
  symmetry/appendages entail totally different
  image schemas ? Beware of Terran schemas!

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Construal Iconicity

• Different word order different construals
• Distance Iconicity, e.g. ditransitive versus
  complement construction for indirect objects
  distinguishes recipient from directional goal
• Resultative iconicity
• 10a) Sam painted the white fence. 10b) Sam
  painted the fence white.
• Sequential order iconicity, e.g.,
• 11a) Eye it, try it, buy it. 11b) Buy it,
  eye it, try it.
• 12a) Jane got married and had a baby. 12b) Jane
  had a baby and got married.

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Construal Iconicity

• Application to Conlanging
• Examine your syntax! Have you inadvertently
  borrowed English (or your native languages)
  iconicity patterns?
• Consider to what extent these patterns are
  universal and may be applied anyway
• Consider morphology-based substitutes (e.g.,
  resultative case or recipient-vs.-goal marking)
• Consider substituting different word-order
  patterns or different pitch/tone/prosodic features

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Construal Perspective

• Same situation described from two different
  perspectives different meanings, e.g.,
• 13a) The path descends steeply into the
  valley.13b) The path climbs steeply out of the
  valley.
• 14a) John bought the car from Mary.14b) Mary
  sold the car to John.
• 15a) The pen is on the table.15b) ??The table
  is under the pen.
• Sentence 15b implies pragmatic experience
  impacts semantic acceptability despite
  syntactical acceptability

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Construal Perspective

• Application to Conlanging
• Consider how/whether to formally represent
  perspective morpho-syntactically
• Different verbal voice? Perspectivizer affixes
  or particles? Prosodic changes? Lexicon?
• Remember how perspective can work with image
  schemas and spatial conceptualization, e.g., The
  sun is out versus The fire is out
• Alien conlangs why stop at binary
  perspective?Why not let tables be under pens?

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Conceptual Metaphor

• Lakoff Johnson (1980) Metaphors We Live By
• Human beings structure their understanding of
  their experiences in the world via conceptual
  metaphors derived from basic sensorimotor and
  spatial concepts learned during infancy and early
  childhood.
• Learned via interaction with external
  environment.
• The process is largely subconscious.
• These simpler, more basic concepts are used as a
  framework for conceptualizing more abstract
  experiences and situations.
• Examples in Handout

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Conceptual Metaphor

• Based on body symmetry/orientation, sensorimotor
  interaction, proprioception and emotional
  experience, we come to metaphorically conceive of
  ourselves and others as
• more UP than DOWN
• more FRONT than BACK
• more ACTIVE than PASSIVE
• more GOOD than BAD
• more HERE than THERE
• more NOW than THEN
• Implications for non-humanoid con-cultures/ langs

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Conceptual Metaphor

• Most conceptual metaphors are specific instances
  of more general metaphors
• STATES ARE LOCATIONS
• CHANGES ARE MOVEMENTS
• CAUSES ARE FORCES
• ACTIONS ARE SELF-PROPELLED MOVEMENTS
• PURPOSES ARE DESTINATIONS
• ACTION IS DIRECTED MOTION
• Conceptual metaphor not only impacts speech but
  also how we think about situations. They are a
  powerful rhetorical device for social
  manipulation.

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Conceptual Metaphor Conlanging

• When translating, find the English conceptual
  metaphors. Decide whether to adopt, substitute,
  or avoid them entirely.
• Any domain of experience which can be cognitively
  mapped onto another logically is fair game.
• Dont violate pre-linguistic bodily-based
  metaphors arbitrarily (UP, FRONT, ACTIVE, GOOD,
  HERE, NOW).
• On the other hand, if your speakers are
  non-humanoid, you should rethink your
  bodily-based metaphors.

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Conceptual Metaphor Conlanging

• Think up metaphors whose underlying conceptual
  logic matches your con-culture or the psyche of
  your speakers, e.g.,
• LOVE IS DANCING LOVE IS DEFUSING A BOMB
• MEMORIES ARE DISEASES GOD IS THE SEA
• THE FAMILY IS A JUNGLE LOVE IS A SCHOOL
• THE FUTURE IS A JESTER LIFE IS MUSIC
• A PROJECT IS A PREGNANCY LIFE IS WAR
• SEX IS ART EMOTIONS ARE ZOO ANIMALS
• SEX IS WEATHER THE MIND IS A LIVING BODY
• SEEING IS EATING COMMERCE IS SEDUCTION
• CRIME IS A CIRCUS ANGER IS A HOSPITAL

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Categorization Prototypes

• Human categorization schemes are arbitrary
• Human categorization criteria based on fuzzy
  logic, not classical set theory
• Categorization schemes utilize prototypes
  membership is relative to a best example
• Radial categories No single prototype no
  single member contains all attributes of the set,
  e.g., Wittgensteins spiel (game)
• Examples furniture, fruit, tall vs.
  short

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Categorization Prototypes

• Examples from Linguistic Morphology
• Suffix -able Prototype meaning able to
  be Xd e.g., washable
• Atypical examples e.g., readable,
  drinkable (books able to be read or liquids
  able to be drunk are, pragmatically-speaking,
  near-tautologies)
• Diminutive in Romance LanguagesPrototype
  meaning small-sized X e.g., Italian paesino lt
  paese
• Atypical examples cenetta mammina
  sinfonietta piogerella dormicchiare
  (small-sized mothers, tiny raindrops or miniature
  plates of food are irrelevant)

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Categorization Prototypes

• Implications for Conlangers
• What will be the semantic range of a particular
  morphological category?
• E.g., should my DIMINUTIVE cover the areas of
  size, endearment, scale, intensity, temporal
  brevity, and bodily impact as in Romance
  languages?
• What about a different semantic range? E.g.,
  speak DIMINUTIVE to speak inanities or
  speak DIMINUTIVE to lie tell a falsehood

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Categorization Prototypes

• Implications for Conlangers
• Consider whether the particular worldview or
  psychology of your con-culture warrants different
  categorization boundaries/constraints
• Go beyond mere differences in common semantic
  areas (e.g., color categorization) consider
  realms such as
• Verb tenses or aspects (e.g., circular time,
  phases)
• Lexical classes (e.g., gender, declensions, etc.)
• Syntactic relations / semantic roles / noun cases
• Lexico-semantic taxonomies

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Frame Semantics

• The subconscious meaning of a given word goes
  well beyond its dictionary definition
• Most words are associated with a culture-specific
  frame, an archetypical context or default mental
  model that provides immediate access
  to/recognition of pre-ordained related concepts
  and lexemes, e.g.,
• EAT subconsciously entails food, silverware,
  kitchens, cooking utensils, ovens, cups and
  plates, packages, jars and cans, restaurants,
  menus, desserts, even abstract concepts such as
  hunger, famine, nutrition, etc.
• The subconscious frame helps determine semantic
  acceptability, e.g. The rock ate the candy bar.

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Frame Semantics

• Frames demonstrate that meanings of words are not
  feature-based, e.g., are the following persons
  bachelors? MALE ADULT-MARRIED
• The Pope
• Tarzan
• A man living with his longtime girlfriend
• A gay man living with his longtime boyfriend
• Frames connote an entire network of cultural
  information excellent opportunity for
  integration with your conculture

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Frame Semantics

• Frames involve interactional properties not
  inherent within the word itself, e.g. fake
  gun
• Must look like a real gun (you cant use a
  dish-towel as a fake gun), i.e., fake
  preserves a perceptual property
• Purpose must allow it to be handled like a real
  gun (e.g., as threat), i.e. fake preserves a
  motor-activity property
• Must serve some purposes of a real gun (e.g.,
  threat, for display), i.e. fake preserves a
  purposive property
• It cant shoot bullets, i.e., fake negates the
  primary functional property
• It cannot have once been real (a broken gun is
  not a fake gun), i.e., it negates a historical
  property

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Frame Semantics

• These interactional properties emerge from the
  juxtaposition of fake gun
• These five properties (perceptual,
  motor-activity, purposive, functional, and
  historical) operate as an experiential gestalt
• Another example KILLING entails
• CAUSE OF DEATH, INSTRUMENT, METHOD, PERPETRATOR,
  VICTIM, DEGREE, MANNER, PLACE, PURPOSE, REASON,
  RESULT
• Frames for English listed on FrameNet
  websitehttp//framenet.icsi.berkeley.edu/

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Frame Semantics Conlanging

• Determine scope of each words frame
• Should it parallel English?
• Should some elements be missing? (e.g.,
  historical property of gun)
• Should I add some elements missing from English?
  e.g., adding BODY PART to the KILLING frame to
  allow sentences translatable as He stomached him
  to death or I throat-killed him.
• Common frames lend themselves to conlang-specific
  creativity, e.g., BUSINESS/COMMERCE, ROMANTIC
  RELATIONSHIPS, FOOD/EATING, FAMILY, EDUCATION,
  POLITICS, TRANSPORTATION

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Questions?