Conceptualizing the Theories

1
Conceptualizing the Theories

• Chelie Gifford

2
Psychological Foundations

• What is learning?
• Behavioral Learning Theory
• Cognitive Information Processing Theory
• Schema Theory and Cognitive Load Theory
• Situated Learning Theory
• Gagnes Theory of Instruction
• Constructivism

3
What is Learning?

• Can be defined intuitively as being able to do
  something or know something you did not do/know
  before (Reiser and Dempsey,2007, p.37)
• Defined by psychological theories as a
  persisting change in human performance or
  performance potential, with performance potential
  referring to the fact that what is learned may
  not always be exhibited immediately (Driscoll,
  2005, p.9) (Reiser and Dempsey, 2007, p.37)

Reiser, Robert A., Dempsey, John V. (2007).
Trends and issues in instructional design and
technology. Upper Saddle River, NJ Pearson.
4
What is learning?
Learning is a continual process. It is not
something you really ever stop doing. I believe
that everyone continues to grow and acquire new
skills and concepts throughout their lives.
Different people have different levels at
different stages in their life. The questions
educators ask is how do I best get my students to
learn?
Microsoft Clip Art, 2003
Microsoft Clip Art, 2003
Microsoft Clip Art, 2003
5
Theories of Learning

• Are used to understand how individuals learn
• The various theories differ in how they describe
  the observed outcomes of learning and how they
  explain the learning process. (Riser and
  Dempsey, 2007, p.37)
• When deciding which to use in the classroom it is
  best if the teacher takes the following into
  consideration
• How the students learn
• What ways the teacher teaches
• What ways the teacher learns
• (http//www.brookes.ac.uk/services/ocsd/2_learntch
  /theories.html)

Reiser, Robert A., Dempsey, John V. (2007).
Trends and issues in instructional design and
technology. Upper Saddle River, NJ Pearson.
6
Behavioral Learning Theory

• B.F. Skinner is the main advocate
• Focuses on objectively observable
  behaviors...and defines learning as nothing more
  than acquisitions of new behavior
  (http//www.funderstanding.com/behaviorism.cfm )

(Microsoft Office, 2003, clip art)
Students learn that when the bell rings it is the
end of the day and time to go home.
7
Behavioral Learning Theory

• Learning (behaviors) occur to events in the
  environment that Reiser and Dempsey (2007) call
  antecedents and consequences.
• Antecedents are the cues occurring in the
  environment that signal the appropriateness of a
  given behavior (Reiser and Dempsey,2007, p.37)
• Example when students hear a given clap signal
  they are to stop talking
• Consequences determined whether it is repeated
  and thus considered to be learned (Reiser and
  Dempsey, 2007, p.38)
• Example learner who tries a new strategy for
  finding information on the World Wide Web is more
  likely to keep using it if it proves to be
  successful (and thus reinforced) than if the
  strategy does not yield the sought-for
  information. (Reiser and Dempsey, 2007, p.38)

Reiser, Robert A., Dempsey, John V. (2007).
Trends and issues in instructional design and
technology. Upper Saddle River, NJ Pearson.
8
Behavioral Learning Theory

• How this applies to Instructional Design
• Behavior is seen prior to and after
• instruction
• if the behavior has changed then learning
  occurred
• If not then the intervention cannot be
  considered effective (Reiser and Dempsey, 2007,
  p.38) and needs to be evaluated to see how to
  improve it.
• Can help create behavioral objectives (Reiser
  and Dempsey, 2007, p.38)
• if the students do not already posses the desired
  behaviors, then the teacher can include them in
  her lesson giving them plenty of opportunities to
  practice

Reiser, Robert A., Dempsey, John V. (2007).
Trends and issues in instructional design and
technology. Upper Saddle River, NJ Pearson.
9
Behavioral Learning Theory

• Examples of this used this in my class
• 1. During experiments it can get loud in the lab-
  to get my
• students attention I say Albert then they say
  Einstein. Usually, the students that are
  closest to me say it first, then the second time
  I have the attention of the whole class. Those
  still talking are called on by name and given a
  conduct mark. They quickly learn to get quite.
• 2. We used Paint to draw cell diagrams. I told
  them that they were to draw most of the
  organelles but if they wanted to import some they
  could. I wanted to use this project see who knew
  their way around the computer and who would need
  more assistance with complicated assignments
  using the computer in the future.

10
Cognitive Information Processing Theory

• Based on work by Atkinson and Shriffin
• Regards the environments playing an important
  role learning (Reiser and Dempsey, 2007, p.38)
• Different stages of memory is bases of theory

Reiser, Robert A., Dempsey, John V. (2007).
Trends and issues in instructional design and
technology. Upper Saddle River, NJ Pearson.
11
Cognitive Information Processing Theory
Sensory Memory-the shortest level, where learners
receive information from the environment and
stores it fleetingly http//en.wikipedia.org/wiki
/Information_processing_theory
Short-term Memory- Where learners decide what to
do with information received discard it or send
it to Long-term Memory
Long-term Memory-the place that information is
stored and can later be retrieved from
http//chiron.valdosta.edu/whuitt/col/cogsys/infop
roc.html
12
Cognitive Information Processing Theory

• Information Processing Skills
• Attention
• If students are not paying attention when
  learning is happening then they will not be able
  to obtain the new information
• Encoding
• Allows students to connect the new information
  with prior experiences and knowledge
• Retrieval
• Students can recover prior information to connect
  it with what they are learning

13
Cognitive Information Processing Theory

• How to apply it to Instruction Design
• To direct attention
• Use boldface and italic print
• Distinguish important features
• Use of color in diagrams or slides
• Make meaningful connections
• Use graphical diagrams and imagery strategies
• Help apply knowledge
• Provide many different kinds of examples or
  problems in different contexts

Reiser and Dempsey, 2007, p.39
Reiser, Robert A., Dempsey, John V. (2007).
Trends and issues in instructional design and
technology. Upper Saddle River, NJ Pearson.
14
http//chiron.valdosta.edu/whuitt/col/cogsys/infop
roc.html
 
15
http//chiron.valdosta.edu/whuitt/col/cogsys/infop
roc.html
 
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Schema Theory

• Developed by R.C. Anderson (http//www.sil.org/lin
  gualinks/literacy/ImplementALiteracyProgram/Schema
  TheoryOfLearning.htm )
• Believes that information is filed (schemata) in
  long-term memory that learners can retrieve to
  interpret events and solve problems, and they
  develop new and more complex schemata through
  experience and learning. (Reiser and Dempsey,
  2007, p.39)

Reiser, Robert A., Dempsey, John V. (2007).
Trends and issues in instructional design and
technology. Upper Saddle River, NJ Pearson.
Microsoft Clip Art, 2003
17
Schema Theory

• Applying it to Instructional Design
• Provide work examples and partially completed
  problems that learners can review or finish
• Use narration with animation or diagrams so that
  learners attention is not split between reading
  and viewing the graphics

Reiser, Robert A., Dempsey, John V. (2007).
Trends and issues in instructional design and
technology. Upper Saddle River, NJ Pearson.
Reiser and Dempsey, 2007, p.39
18
Cognitive Load Theory

• G.A. Miller first introduced J. Sweller builds
  upon it
• states that optimum learning occurs in humans
  when the load on working memory is kept to a
  minimum to best facilitate the changes in long
  term memory.

Microsoft Clip Art, 2003
http//coe.sdsu.edu/eet/articles/cogloadtheory/ind
ex.htm
Microsoft Clip Art, 2003
http//coe.sdsu.edu/eet/articles/cogloadtheory/ind
ex.htm
19
Cognitive Load Theory

• Applying it to Instructional Design
• 1. Change problem solving methods to avoid
  means-ends approaches that impose a heavy working
  memory load by using goal-free problems or worked
  examples.
• 2. Physically integrate multiple sources of
  information whenever possible to eliminate the
  need for learners to have to mentally integrate
  that information which increases the load on
  working memory.
• 3. Reduce redundancy and repetitive information
  whenever possible so that the load on working
  memory is lessened.
• 4. Use auditory and visual information under
  conditions where both sources of information are
  essential (i.e. non-redundant) to understanding.
  This helps increase the capacity of working
  memory.

http//coe.sdsu.edu/eet/articles/cogloadtheory/ind
ex.htm
20
Situated Learning Theory

• Developed by Jean Lave and Etienne Wenger
  (http//www.infed.org/biblio/communities_of_practi
  ce.htm)
• Learning occurs through situations in everyday
  life
• Students learn from doing an activity that is
  relevant to real-life situations

Microsoft Clip Art, 2003
In situated learning students would to learn to
add and subtract decimals by buying and selling
items.
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Situated Learning Theory

• Application to Instructional Design
• Computer Supported Intentional Learning
  Environment (CSILE)- computer tool that enables
  students to engage in the course of a subject
  matter discipline in a scholarly way (Reiser and
  Dempsey, 2007, p.40)
• Anchored Instruction-is a learning strategy that
  was developed by The Cognition and Technology
  Group at Vanderbilt
• Uses a video adventure program that embedded
  problems to engage viewers in an attempt to solve
  the problems
• Provides realistic situated anchor for
  activities such as identifying problems, making
  hypotheses, proposing multiple solutions, and so
  on (Reiser and Dempsey, 2007, p.40)

Reiser, Robert A., Dempsey, John V. (2007).
Trends and issues in instructional design and
technology. Upper Saddle River, NJ Pearson.
22
Gagnes Theory of Instruction

• Developed by Robert Gagne
• 3 Components
• Taxonomy of Learning Outcomes
• Learning Conditions
• Events of Instruction

Microsoft Clip Art, 2003
23
Gagnes Theory of InstructionTaxonomy of
Learning Outcomes

• 5 Major Categories of learning
• Verbal
• Intellectual
• Cognitive
• Attitudes
• Motor Skills

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Gagnes Theory of InstructionLearning Conditions

• Internal Conditions-skills that a learner has
  already mastered
• External Conditions-things that the teacher or
  instructional designer arranges during
  instruction
• http//education.indiana.edu/p540/webcourse/gagne
  .html

25
Gagnes Theory of InstructionEvents of
Instruction

• Gain Attention Pique the learners' interest in
  the subject. Example  Show a diagram of a
  cell. Ask the students to tell what they
  think it is.
• Inform Learner of Objective Let the learners know
  what they will be learning. Example 
  Today, we will learn the parts of a cell.
• Recall Prior Knowledge Get the learners to think
  about what they already
  know. Example  Has anyone ever seen a cell? 
  Where?  When?  What are organelles?
• 4. Present Material Teach the topic.
• Example  Show learners examples of the
  different cell parts.

http//coe.sdsu.edu/eet/Articles/gagnesevents/inde
x.htm
26
Gagnes Theory of InstructionEvents of
Instruction

• 5. Provide Guided Learning Help the learners
  follow along as the topic is
  presented. Example  Provide picture, posters
  of different cells.
• 6. Elicit Performance Ask learners to do what
  they have been taught. Example  Have students
  draw or make a model of a cell.
• 7. Provide Feedback Inform learners of their
  performance. Example  Circulate around the
  classroom to observe and help learners.
• 8. Assess Performance Evaluate learners on their
  knowledge of the topic. Example  Examine
  learners' cells. 
• 9. Enhance Retention and Transfer Aid learners in
  remembering and applying the new
  skill. Example  Have students make an edible
  cell at home to bring to school
  and share with the class.

http//coe.sdsu.edu/eet/Articles/gagnesevents/inde
x.htm
27
Gagnes Theory of Instruction

• How I use it in my class
• I have Blooms taxonomy posted in my class so
  that the students can reference it. We also
  create flip books with key words and questions
  that the students use.
• Also when creating lesson plans they follow his
  events.

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Constructivism

• John Dewey is the philosophical founder while
  Ausubel, Bruner, Piaget are the chief theorists
  among the cognitive constructionists
  http//chiron.valdosta.edu/whuitt/col/cogsys/const
  ruct.html
• values developmentally appropriate
  teacher-supported learning that is initiated and
  directed by the student http//en.wikipedia.org/wi
  ki/Constructivism_28learning_theory29

Microsoft Clip Art, 2003
29
Learning Environments
Constructivist Learning Environments Social
Learning Theory 4C/ID Model
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Constructivist Learning Environments

• Learner Center-the individual assumes
  responsibility for constructing personally
  relevant understand and meanings (Reiser and
  Dempsey, 2007, p.58)
• Project based-students engage in real-life
  activities that creates ownership of the learning
  process
• Real world problems-need to be interesting,
  relevant, and meaningful ill-structured, in
  order to allow students to seek out a solution
  http//www.accesswave.ca/hgunn/special/papers/hyp
  ertxt/cle.html

Reiser, Robert A., Dempsey, John V. (2007).
Trends and issues in instructional design and
technology. Upper Saddle River, NJ Pearson.
31
Constructivist Learning Environments

• Examples of Internet Sites that use on-line CLEs
• The Jasper Series at Peabody
• http//peabody.vanderbilt.edu/projects/funded/jasp
  er/preview/AdvJW.html
• The Jason Project
• http//www.jasonproject.org/
• TEAMS Star Schools Project
• http//teams.lacoe.edu/

32
Social Learning Theory

• Developed by A. Bandura
• Focuses is on that children learn by modeling
  what they observe in their environment
• Process of Social Learning Theory
• Attention
• Retention
• Motivation
• Motor Reproduction
• http//coe.sdsu.edu/eet/articles/sociallearn/index
  .htm

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Social Learning Theory

• Applying it to the classroom
• Can be used with discipline-teacher models how
  she wants her students to behave
• Teacher uses technology in the classroom to
  promote students awareness and interest
• Best saying Teachers lead by example

34
4C/ID Model

• 4 Component Instructional Design model by van
  Merriënboer
• Holistic Design-focus on meaningful, whole
  learning tasks, the use of scaffolding to help
  learners coordinate different aspect of the whole
  task, and the employment of mathemagenic methods
  to support the transfer of learning (Reiser and
  Dempsey, 2007, p.72)

Reiser, Robert A., Dempsey, John V. (2007).
Trends and issues in instructional design and
technology. Upper Saddle River, NJ Pearson.
35
http//edutechwiki.unige.ch/en/4C/ID
36
Learner Motivation

• ARCS
• Malone's Theory of Intrinsically Motivating
  Instruction
• Achievement Motivation

37
ARCS

• Developed by John Keller
• ARCS-Attention-Relevance-Confidence-Satisfaction

38
Attention

• Teacher needs to grab and keep hold of
• Show a picture, sing a song, change the pace
  (lecture for a bit, then do an activity, then
  facilitate discussion)

Microsoft Office Clip Art, 2003
39
Relevance

• Teacher needs to make learning relevant to the
  learner
• Math-adding/subtracting decimals-give a checkbook
  to them and let them earn items (passing grades
  on worksheets, following directions, respecting
  others, etc.) and buy (time on the computer,
  seating with friends, etc.) with them keeping
  track of their money
• Tic-tac-toe assignments-teacher creates a 9 box
  assignment where there are different levels of
  learning assignments. The students get to choose
  which 3 boxes to do as long as they are 3 in a
  row.

40
Confidence

• Teachers need to make sure that the learners have
  clear objectives (reasons why they are learning
  this) and what is expected out of them.
• When starting a lesson the teacher can state
  precisely what the learner is going to learn
  Today we are going to learn about heredity.
• Start with them looking at similar characteristic
  of each other (inherited traits) to
  chromosomes/genes to learning about Mendel to
  creating their own Punnetts squares
• As they are doing lab, give them clear
  instructions on what to do and reinforce the fact
  that everyone is different so no 2 answers will
  be alike

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Satisfaction

• Teacher helps the learners to feel good about
  what they are doing
• Provide the learner with realistic or authentic
  situations which require the application of the
  newly-learned skill.
• Provide rewards or feedback that will encourage
  the learner to continue target behavior.
• Design and maintain consequences and feedback
  that are consistent and fair.

http//coe.sdsu.edu/eet/Articles/arcsatisfaction/s
tart.htm
42
Malone's Theory of Intrinsically Motivating
Instruction

• Based on self-regulating learning
• Is intrinsic
• Learners must see that learning is valuable
• 4 Characteristics
• Challenge-lesson should not be to easy or
  difficult
• Curiosity-
• Sensory-is visual or auditory and grabs attention
• Cognitive-new information does not align with
  prior knowledge
• Fantasy-plays on the hopes and fears of the
  learner
• Positive-shows what they can do once they have
  mastery of concept
• Negative-shows what will happen if they are
  non-compliant
• Control-lesson is learner-center

http//hagar.up.ac.za/catts/learner/bettieb/motiva
tion/framemot.html
43
Achievement Motivation

• Based on the works of Henry Murray and David
  McCelland
• Some people have a need to achieve and others
  dont
• 3 Needs
• need for achievement (the need to strive for
  personal excellence),
• need for affiliation (the need for social
  interaction), and
• need for power (the need to exert influence over
  others)
• http//www.ala.org/ala/aasl/aaslpubsandjournals/sl
  mrb/slmrcontents/volume11998slmqo/small.htm