TAJUK 5: Perkembangan Kognitif

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TAJUK 5 Perkembangan Kognitif
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Cognitive Development
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What is Cognitive Development?

• Refers to
• Internal process and the product of the mind ?
  leading to knowledge development
• Covers a wide aspects of mental activities
• Memorizing
• Categorizing simbolizing
• Problem solving creativity
• Inventions
• Dreaming fantasizing
• Reading Writing
• Language acquisition etc

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Cognitive Development involves

• Changes in thinking (logic)
• Language acquisition
• The process of how human receive, store and
  remember information (knowledge) from their
  environment.

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Intellectual Development

• How human relate the knowledge they receive
  and applied it to their everyday lives.
• How the information from the environment
• Receive
• Stored
• Re-use
• Stressed on individual
• Level of understanding use of knowledge

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• Thus, every changes, including those learned is
  being-
• Recorded by the brain
• Processed? which involves mental activities
• The thinking reasoning process of children
  differs from adolescent and adults.
• As age increases, the ability to think and
  reasons became complex (better)

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Improvements in Information Processing During
Infancy
Attention Efficiency, ability to shift focus improve. Less attraction to novelty, better sustained attention after first year.
Memory Retention intervals lengthen. Recall appears by 1 year excellent in second year.
Categorization Impressive perceptual categorization in first year. Conceptual categorization in second year
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Store Model of Information Processing System
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Piaget Cognitive theory

• Focus on the
• Function and the reaction of the mind ? to the
  environment
• According to Piaget
• Human being can think and are rational
• The thinking ability of a child is strong
  and inquisitive
• Always interact with their environment ?
  consistent to their understanding and
  cognitive ability.
• Piaget argued that children have schemas.

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Piagets Cognitive Development Theory

• SCHEMA is a/an
• cognitive structure ? built to assist
  individual to understand their past experiences.
• Organized ways of making sense of experience
• Childs schemas change with age ? involved the
  modification of intellectual schemas as the child
  seeks to understand its world
• Action-based (motor patterns) at first
• Later move to a mental (thinking) level
• Thus, Schemas are
• organized patterns of thought or behavior ?
  assist in making sense of experience

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How Cognitive Changes Takes Place?

• Through the process of Adaptation Organization.
• A Child cognitive ability rely a lot on
• How a child response to an event that
  occurs in their environment.
• The effect of these event on their
  development.
• Schemas developed by children must be able to
  handle new information and situations
• Schema can be built based on adaptation
  process
• Adaptation is the process of building schemes
  through direct interaction with the
  environment.

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• According to Piaget, adaptation can be further
  divided into two intellectual processes
• Assimilation Involves interpreting new
  information in light of an old (existing) schema
• All 4-legged animals are viewed as a dog
• Accommodation Process by which old schemas are
  created or modified to fit new situations
• A horse is not a dog

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• Organization is an internal process of
  arranging and linking together schemas to
  form an interconnected cognitive system.
• Schemas reach a true state of equilibrium
  when they become part of a broad network
  of structures that can be jointly applied to
  the surrounding world.

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Piagets Theory on The Level of Cognitive
Development

• Stages of Cognitive development
• Sensory Motor (0-2 yrs old)
• Pre operational (2-7 yrs old)
• Concrete Operation (7-11 yrs old)
• Formal Operation (12 and above)

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Stage 1 Sensorimotor
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Sensorimotor Stage

• Birth to 2 years
• Building schemes through sensory and motor
  exploration
• Circular reactions

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Stage 1 Sensorimotor (0-2 yrs)

• Piaget based this stage on his observation
  of his children.
• Emphasize on Circular Reaction (CR)
• CR the means by which infants explore the
  environment and build schemas by trying to
  repeat chance events caused by their own motor
  activity.
• Reactions are first centered on infants own
  body ? later change to manipulating objects ?
  then to produce effects in the environment.
• 8-12 mths ? Concept of Object permanence develop
• Object permanence, the realization that an
  object/person continues to exist when out of
  sight.

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Sensorimotor Substages
Reflexive Schemes Birth 1 month Newborn reflexes
Primary Circular Reactions 1 4 months Simple motor habits centered around own body
Secondary Circular Reactions 4 8 months Repeat interesting effects in soundings
Coordination of Secondary Circular Reactions 8 12 months Intentional, goal-directed behavior object permanence
Tertiary Circular Reactions 12 18 months Explore properties of objects through novel actions
Mental Representations 12 months 2 years Internal depictions of objects or events deferred imitation
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Object Permanence

• Understanding that objects continue to exist when
  out of sight
• According to Piaget, develops in Substage 4.
• Incomplete at first

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Mental Representations

• Internal, mental depictions of objects, people,
  events, information
• Can manipulate with mind
• Allow deferred imitation (ability to remember and
  copy the behavior of models who are not
  immediately present) and make-believe play

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Deferred Imitation

• Piaget Develops about 18 months
• Newer research
• Present at 6 weeks facial imitation
• 6 9 months copy actions with objects
• 12 14 months imitate rationally
• 18 months imitate intended,
• but not completed, actions

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Into Preoperational Stage..

• As child enters preoperational stage, the
  earlier abilities/skill continue to develop
  become better, such as abilities in
• object permanence
• Mental representations
• Deferred Imitation

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Stage 2 The Preoperational Child
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Stage 2 The Preoperational Child (2-7 yrs old)

• Cognitive Advances
• Ages 2 to 7 yrs is a time of great expansion in
  the use of symbolic thought, or
  representational ability, which first emerges at
  the end of the sensorimotor stage
• The use of symbols is a universal mark of human
  culture. Without symbols, people could not
  communicate verbally, make change, read maps, or
  treasure photos of distant loved ones. Yet an
  understanding of symbolism comes only gradually
  usually after age 3.
• Growing understanding of space, causality,
  identities, categorization, and number

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Piagets Preoperational Stage

• Gains in Mental Representation
• Make-believe Play
• Dual Representation
• Limitations in Thought Cannot Perform Mental
  Operations
• Egocentrism and Animistic Thinking
• Conservation
• Hierarchical Classification

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Development of Make-Believe Play ..

• With age, make-believe gradually becomes
• More detached from real-life conditions
• Less self-centered
• More complex
• Sociodramatic Play

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Dual Representation

• Viewing a symbolic object as both an object and a
  symbol
• Mastered around age 3
• Adult teaching can help
• Provide lots of maps, photos, drawings,
• make-believe playthings, etc.
• Point out similarities to real world

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Animistic Thinking

• Belief that inanimate objects have lifelike
  qualities

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Immature Aspects Of Preoperational Thoughts..

• Cannot reason logically as to cause and effect
• Attribute life to inanimate objects animism
• Failure to understand conservation two things
  remain equal if their appearance changes but
  nothing is added or taken away
• Egocentrism Center so much on their own point
  of view that they cannot take in another's
• Conservation Understanding that the basic
  properties of an object are constant even if the
  object changes shape

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Egocentrism

• Egocentrism refers to a cognitive view in which a
  child understands the world to have only their
  view (has great difficulty in understanding the
  views of others)
• E.g Piagets three-mountain task. A
  preoperational child is unable to describe the
  mountains from the dolls point of view - an
  indication of egocentrism

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Limits on Conservation

• Centration Focus on one aspect and neglect others
• Irreversibility Cannot mentally reverse a set of
  steps

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Stage 3 The Concrete Operational Child (7-12
yrs old)
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Achievements of a Concrete Operational Stage Child

• Conservation
• Decentration
• Reversibility
• Classification/ categorization
• Seriation
• Transitive inference
• Spatial Reasoning
• Directions
• Maps

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Steps in Planning

• Postponing action to weigh alternatives
• Organizing task materials
• Remembering steps of plan
• Monitoring how well plan works
• Revising if necessary

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Development in Memorizing Strategies

• Chunking - Breaking the information into
  manageable chunk.
• eg. OFHRTJUDYCX ? OFH RTJ UDY CX
• Rehearsal - Simple repetition
• Elaboration ? when info to be remembered is
  linked to other information
• Imagery - Conjured image of an object/related
  meaning.
• Mnemonics - Memory strategy to help remember
  information
• Eg. A rhyme or pairing of to-be-learned
  information with well learned information.
• Schema activation - Strategy to use with
  encoding complex info. ? relates new
  information to prior knowledge.
• Level of processing -Material that is only
  skimmed will not be as deeply processed as
  material that is studied in detail.

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Stage 4 The Formal Operational
Child/Adolescent (12 above)
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Cognitive development

• Rapid Mental activities
• Cognitive development - better
• Organisation and thinking process
• Reasoning abilities

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Formal Operation

• Aspects Of Cognitive Maturation
• Develop the capacity for abstract thought? a new,
  more flexible way to manipulate information
• Can use symbols more extensively
• Can understand metaphor and allegory
• Can imagine possibilities and can form and test
  hypotheses (hypothetical-deductive reasoning)
• Gradual accumulation of knowledge and expertise
  in specific fields
• Higher gain of information-processing capacity
• Growth in metacognition? awareness and monitoring
  of one's own mental processes and strategies.

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Changes in the adolescent stage

• Language ability
• Ability in making decision
• Memory and reasoning capacity

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• INTELLIGENCE

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IQ Tests
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IQ Tests

• Group Tests
• Allow testing of large groups
• Require little training to administer
• Useful for instructional planning
• Identify students who need individual testing

• Individually-Administered Tests
• Examiners need training experience
• Provide insights about accuracy of score
• Identify highly intelligent and children with
  learning problems

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Types (examples) of IQ test

• Bayley Scales of Infant Development (0-2 ½
  yrs)
• Mental, motor, social scale
• Standford-Binet Intelligence Scale (2- adult)
• General, verbal, quantitative, abstract/visual,
  short term memory scale
• Weschler Intelligence Scale for children (WISC
  III)
• 3-8 yrs (Weschler Preschool Primary Scale of
  Intelligence - WPPSI-R)
• 6-16 yrs (WISC)
• Verbal performance scale
• Kaufman Battery of Assessment
• Information processing

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Calculating IQ

• Formula
• MA/CA x 100 IQ
• Ma mental age
• CA Chronological age
• Example
• Hasif is 10 yrs old and got a metal age
  of 12 years old. Thus Hasif have an IQ
  of 120, ie.
• 12/10 x 100 120
• According to IQ score chart,
• Score above100 cerdik pintar
• Score between 100 -69 kurang kemampuan
  intelektual
• score of 70 below kurang upaya mental

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Explaining Differences in IQ

• Genetics
• Accounts for about half of differences
• Environment
• SES
• Culture
• Communication styles
• Cultural bias in test content

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Gardners Multiple Intelligences

• Linguistic
• Logico-mathematical
• Musical
• Spatial
• Bodily-kinesthetic
• Naturalist
• Interpersonal
• Intrapersonal

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The Child in School.

• Children with Learning Problems
• Mental retardation significantly subnormal
  cognitive functioning
• Dyslexiadevelopmental reading disorder in which
  reading achievement is substantially below the
  level predicted by IQ or age.
• Learning disabilities disorders that interfere
  with school achievement?performance substantially
  lower than expected.
• Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD)
  with or without hyperactivity
• ADHD has a substantial genetic basis, with
  heritability approaching 80 percent
• ADHD is generally treated with drugs, sometimes
  combined with behavioral therapy, counseling,
  training in social skills, and special classroom
  placement

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Gifted and Talented Children

• Gifted
• Exceptional intellectual strength
• The traditional criterion of giftedness is high
  general intelligence, as shown by an
• Usually measured by high IQ (score of 130 or
  higher)
• Talented
• Outstanding performance in a specific field
• Measured by divergent thinking and creativity

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• Gifted Children
• these children were taller, healthier, better
  coordinated, better adjusted, and more popular
  than the average child
• Their cognitive, scholastic, and vocational
  superiority has held up for nearly eighty years
• Creativity ability to see things in a new light
• divergent thinking
• enrichment or acceleration classes for both
  gifted and creative children

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Milestone in children cognitive
development(2-12 yrs old)
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COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT

• By 2 years old
• like to take things apart
• explore surroundings
• point to 5-6 parts of a doll when asked
• Language
• have a vocabulary of several hundred words
• use 2-3 word sentences
• say names of toys
• ask for information about an object (asks,
  "Shoe?" while pointing to shoe box)
• hum or try to sing
• listen to short rhymes
• like to imitate parents

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COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT

• By 3 years
• recognize sounds in the environment
• pay attention for about 3 minutes
• remember what happened yesterday
• know what is food and what is not food
• know some numbers (but not always in the right
  order)
• know where things usually belong
• understand what is "1, "now," "soon," and
  "later
• substitute one object for another in pretend play
  (as in pretending a block is a "car")
• laugh at silly ideas (like "milking" a dog)
• look through a book alone
• match circles squares match object to a
  picture of that object or match objects that have
  same function (as in putting a cup and plate
  together)
• count 2 to 3 objects
• avoid some dangers, like a hot stove or a moving
  car
• follow simple one-step commands

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COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT

• By 3 years
• Language
• use 3-5 word sentences
• ask short questions
• use plurals ("dogs," "cars," "hats")
• name at least 10 familiar objects
• repeat simple rhymes
• name at least one color correctly

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COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT

• By 4 years old
• recognize red, yellow, and blue
• understand taking turns and can do so without
  always being reminded
• understand "big," "little," "tall," "short
• want to know what will happen next
• sort by shape or color
• count up to 5 objects
• follow three instructions given at one time("Put
  the toys away, wash your hands, and come eat.")
• distinguish between the real world and the
  imaginary or pretend world
• identify situations that would lead to happiness,
  sadness, or anger

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By 5 years old

• Can count 10 or more objects
• Correctly names at least four colors
• Better understands the concept of time
• Knows about things used every day in the home
  (money, food, appliances)

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Mental Development 6-12 years old

• Children can begin to think about their own
  behavior and see consequences for actions.
• In the early stages of concrete thinking, they
  can group things that belong together (for
  instance babies, fathers, mothers, aunts are all
  family members). As children near adolescence,
  they master sequencing and ordering, which are
  needed for math skills.
• Children begin to read and write early in middle
  childhood and should be skillful in reading and
  writing by the end of this stage.
• They can think through their actions and trace
  back events that happened to explain situations,
  such as why they were late to school.

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• Children learn best if they are active while they
  are learning. For example, children will learn
  more effectively about traffic safety by moving
  cars, blocks, and toy figures rather than sitting
  and listening to an adult explain the rules.
• Six- to 8-year-olds can rarely sit for longer
  than 15-20 minutes for an activity. Attention
  span gets longer with age.
• Toward the beginning of middle childhood,
  children may begin projects but finish few. Allow
  them to explore new materials. Nearing
  adolescence, children will focus more on
  completion.
• Teachers set the conditions for social
  interactions to occur in schools. Understand that
  children need to experience various friendships
  while building esteem.

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• Children can talk through problems to solve them.
  This requires more adult time and more sustained
  attention by children.
• Children can focus attention and take time to
  search for needed information.
• They can develop a plan to meet a goal.
• There is greater memory capability because many
  routines (brushing teeth, tying shoes, bathing,
  etc.) are automatic now.
• Child begins to build a self-image as a "worker."
  If encouraged, this is positive in later
  development of career choices.
• Many children want to find a way to earn money.