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Water Resources

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Title: Water Resources


1
Water Resources
2
The Hydrologic Cycle
  • Water occurs as a solid, liquid and gas
  • Amount of water is fixed
  • The places where water resides are called
    Reservoirs
  • Water constantly moves from one reservoir to
    another

3
The Hydrologic Cycle Pathways
  • Evaporation
  • Evapotranspiration
  • Condensation
  • Precipitation
  • Runoff
  • Infiltration/Percolation

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RESERVOIRS Comparison of the amount of water
supply held in each of the major reservoirs If
the total earths water supply was a 55 gallon
drum
7
Groundwater
  • What happens to precipitation once it reaches the
    ground
  • infiltration
  • percolation
  • Water filling pore space, cracks crevices in
    rocks- Porosity
  • Aquifer- Geologic unit that can store, transmit
    and yield appreciable amounts of water

8
Porosity and Permeability
  • Porosity
  • of rock or sediment that is open (void spaces)
  • ability to hold water
  • Permeability- ability to transmit water

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Movement of ground water
  • Moves in response to differences in water
    pressure elevation
  • Velocity influenced by
  • Slope of water table
  • Permeability

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Groundwater Movement
  • Darcys Law
  • Q KA (h1-h2)/(l)
  • Where Q is discharge A BxW
  • K is hydraulic conductivity
  • (h1-h2)/(l) is hydraulic gradient

15
Cone of Depression
16
After pumping in a well stops, the water level
slowly recovers its previous level and the cone
of depression disappears
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Water UseTrends in population and freshwater
withdrawals by source, 1950-2000.
22
Trends in total water withdrawals by water-use
category, 1950-2000
23
Water Pollution
24
Water Pollution
  • Degradation of water quality
  • Biological
  • Chemical
  • Physical
  • Based on the intended use of the water
  • Attainment vs. non-attainment

25
Clean Water Act Sec.304(a)(1)
  • The Administrator, after consultation with
    appropriate Federal and State agencies and other
    interested persons, shall develop and publish,
    within one year after the date of enactment of
    this title (and from time to time thereafter
    revise) criteria for water quality accurately
    reflecting the latest scientific knowledge
  • (A) on the kind and extent of all identifiable
    effects on health and welfare including, but not
    limited to, plankton, fish, shellfish, wildlife,
    plant life, shorelines, beaches, esthetics, and
    recreation which may be expected from the
    presence of pollutants in any body of water,
    including ground water
  • (B) on the concentration and dispersal of
    pollutants, or their byproducts, through
    biological, physical, and chemical processes and
  • (C) on the effects of pollutants on biological
    community diversity, productivity, and stability,
    including information on the factors affecting
    rates of eutrophication and rates of organic and
    inorganic sedimentation for varying types of
    receiving waters.

26
Common Sources of Groundwater Pollution/Contaminat
ion
  • Leaks from storage tanks and pipes
  • Leaks from waste disposal sites (landfills)
  • Seepage from septic systems
  • Accidental spills
  • Agricultural activities
  • Intrusion of salt water
  • Mine spoils and tailings
  • Irrigation
  • Injection wells
  • Acid mine drainage
  • Runoff- urban, industrial, agricultural

27
Water Pollutants
  • Biological Oxygen Demand
  • Pathogenic Organisms
  • Nutrients
  • Oil
  • Chemicals
  • Heavy Metals
  • Radioactive materials
  • Sediments
  • Thermal Pollution

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Pollution and Environmental Health
  • World Health Organization(WHO) World Resources
    Institute(WRI) United States Environmental
    Protection Agency (USEPA) United States
    Geological Survey(USGS) Botkin Keller

35
Contamination, Pollution and Toxicity
  • Any material that is above background level in
    the environment (introduced)
  • Any material that is above background level in
    the environment and that causes a deleterious
    effect on humans and ecosystems

36
Units of Measurement
  • Depending on whether it is found in water, soil
    or air
  • Reported as percent (), ppm, ppb, ppt (parts per
    million, billion or trillion)
  • 0.01 100ppm mg/kg or mg/L
  • Milligram (mg) (1/1,000 g)
  • Microgram (mg) (1/1,000,000g)
  • Reported as either volume, mass or weight

37
There are two very distinctquestion sets
  • Will a given material harm the environment?
  • Will a given material harm us?

38
Factors Influencing Toxicity
  • Additive 2 2 4
  • Synergistic 2 2 10
  • Antagonism 2 2 0

39
Spectrum of Toxic Dose
Agent LD50 (mg/kg)
Ethanol 10,000
NaCl 4,000
Ferrous Sulfate 1,500
DDT 100
Strychnine sulfate 2
Nicotine 1
Tetrodotoxin 0.1
Dioxin (TCDD) 0.001
Botulinus 0.00001
40
What determines the impactof Exposure?
  • Length of, period of, time
  • Concentration - dose
  • Recurrence is contact repeated
  • Frequency of recurrence daily/yearly
  • Life cycle sensitivity differences - infant/adult
  • Physical condition of victim robust/sickly
  • Presence of other hazards - synergism

41
Point vs. Non-Point Sources
  • As authorized by the Clean Water Act, the
    National Pollutant Discharge Elimination System
    (NPDES) permit program controls water pollution
    by regulating point sources that discharge
    pollutants into waters of the United States
  • Point sources are discrete conveyances such as
    pipes or man-made ditches
  • Industrial, municipal, and other facilities must
    obtain permits if their discharges go directly to
    surface waters
  • In most cases, the NPDES permit program is
    administered by authorized states

42
Point vs. Non-Point Sources
  • Non-point source (NPS) pollution, unlike
    pollution from industrial and sewage treatment
    plants, comes from many diffuse sources
  • NPS pollution is caused by rainfall or snowmelt
    moving over and through the ground
  • As the runoff moves, it picks up and carries away
    natural and human-made pollutants, finally
    depositing them into lakes, rivers, wetlands,
    coastal waters, and groundwater

43
Non-Point Source Pollutants
  • Excess fertilizers, herbicides, and insecticides
    from agricultural lands and residential areas
  • Oil, grease, and toxic chemicals from urban
    runoff and energy production
  • Sediment from improperly managed construction
    sites, crop and forest lands, and eroding
    streambanks
  • Salt from irrigation practices and acid drainage
    from abandoned mines
  • Bacteria and nutrients from livestock, pet
    wastes, and faulty septic systems
  • Atmospheric deposition are also sources of
    non-point source pollution

44
Federal Water Legislation
  • Refuse Act 1899
  • Federal Water and Pollution Control Act 1956
  • Fish and Wildlife Coordination Act 1958
  • National Environmental Policy Act 1969
  • Water Quality Improvement Act 1970
  • Federal Water Pollution Control Act (Clean Water
    Act) 1972

45
Water Quality Standards
  • Under 303(c) of the Clean Water Act a water
    quality standard is described as comprising (1)
    the designated beneficial uses (aquatic life,
    wildlife, recreation, fishing, agriculture, water
    supply, etc.) of a water body and (2) the
    criteria (numeric and narrative) necessary to
    protect these uses. States and Tribes are
    required by CWA 303(c)(2)(B) to adopt criteria
    for CWA 307(a) toxic pollutants for which EPA
    has published CWA 304(a) criteria, and/or
    recommendations and methodology based on the
    latest science.

46
Federal Water Legislation
  • Comprehensive Environmental Response,
    Compensation and Liability Act (CERCLA) 1980
  • Hazardous and Solid Waste Amendments to the
    Resource Conservation and Recovery Act (RCRA)
    1984
  • Water Quality Act 1987
  • Safe Drinking Water Act 1996

47
Water Quality Standards
  • Maximum Contaminant Level- MCLs
  • Based on toxicity
  • Usually lethal dose (LD50) for some target
    organism or toxic dose (TD50)
  • Maximum Contaminant Level Goal-MCLGs

48
Primary Drinking Water Standards
Contaminant MCL (mg/L) Problems
Arsenic 0.05 Highly toxic
Lead 0.015 Highly toxic
Mercury 0.002 Kidney, Nervous System
Fluoride 4 Skeletal Damage
Asbestos 7 million fibers/L gt10mm Benign Tumors
Lindane 0.004 Kidney, Nervous System, Liver
2,4D 0.07 Kidney, Nervous System, Liver
Benzene 0.005 Cancer
Trichloroethylene 0.005 Probable Cancer
Vinyl Chloride 0.002 Cancer risk
Fecal Coliform 1 cell/100ml Pathogen
49
Categories of Pollutants
  • Biological- Infectious Agents
  • Heavy Metals
  • Organic compounds
  • Particulates
  • Radiation
  • Thermal

50
Biological Hazards
  • Of all the environmental hazards humans
    encounter, the most formidable adversaries remain
    the microorganisms -- viruses, bacteria,
    protozoa, and parasitic worms
  • Up to 17 million deaths per year are attributable
    to these infectious and parasitic agents, almost
    all in the developing world, along with hundreds
    of millions of cases of illnesses

51
Why consider infectious diseases "environmental"
in origin?
  • Cholera and other diarrheal diseases are
    associated with inadequate access to clean water
    and sanitation and poor hygiene
  • Diarrhea is spread by both bacteria and viruses
    through contaminated food or water, and these
    disease-causing agents represent one of the most
    widespread health problems in the world
  • Diarrhea killed roughly 2.5 million people in
    1996, according to World Health Organization,
    most of whom were children under age 5

52
Inadequate Water Supplies
  • Creates conditions rife for transmitting diarrhea
  • An estimated 2.9 billion people lack access to
    adequate sanitation
  • Roughly 1.4 billion people do not have access to
    safe drinking water
  • This situation has persisted despite investments
    of more than US100 billion during the
    International Water and Sanitation Decade

53
Infectious Agents
  • In 1993, the United States experienced the
    largest outbreak of diarrhea in recent history
  • Affecting more than 400,000 people
  • The municipal water supply of Milwaukee,
    Wisconsin, was contaminated by Cryptosporidium
    parvum from farm animal wastes
  • This protozoan parasite has been wreaking havoc
    in countries across Europe as well, raising new
    concerns about the safety of drinking water in
    some of the world's most affluent countries.

54
Chemical Hazards in the Environment
  • Exposure to chemical agents in the environment --
    in air, water, food, and soil -- has been
    implicated in numerous adverse effects, from
    cancer to lung disease to brain damage to birth
    defects
  • Some evidence is ironclad some is suggestive at
    best

55
Heavy Metals
  • Metals with high atomic mass
  • Arsenic, Cadmium, Chromium, Lead, Mercury,
    Nickel, Platinum, Selenium, Silver, Vanadium
    (others)
  • Used in industrial processes and by-products of
    mining, smelting, fossil fuel burning, etc.
  • Can have direct physiological effect or can
    Concentrate in fatty tissue (bioaccumulation)

56
Copper mining and smelting in the Copper Basin of
the SE US
Ducktown, TN- Burra Burra Mine
57
Mercury
  • Mercury has been well known as an environmental
    pollutant for several decades
  • As early as the 1950s it was established that
    emissions of mercury to the environment could
    have serious effects on human health
  • Inorganic mercury (Hg2) will undergo bacterial
    activity and be converted to the more toxic
    methyl mercury (CH3Hg)
  • Early studies demonstrated that fish and other
    wildlife from various ecosystems commonly attain
    mercury levels of toxicological concern when
    directly affected by mercury-containing emissions
    from human-related activities
  • Human health concerns arise when fish and
    wildlife from these ecosystems are consumed by
    humans (Minamata, Japan)

58
  • In the U.S. widespread mercury contamination in
    streams, wet-lands, reservoirs, and lakes
  • To date, 33 states have issued fish consumption
    advisories because of mercury contamination
  • These continental to global scale occurrences of
    mercury contamination cannot be linked to
    individual emissions of mercury, but instead are
    due to widespread air pollution
  • When scientists measure mercury levels in air and
    surface water, however, the observed levels are
    extraordinarily low

59
Why do fish from some remote areas have elevated
mercury concentrations, when contamination levels
in the environment are so low?
  • Mercury biomagnifies from the bottom to the top
    of the food chain
  • Even at very low input rates to aquatic
    ecosystems that are remote from point sources,
    biomagnification effects can result in mercury
    levels of toxicological concern
  • The bioaccumulation effect is generally
    compounded the longer an organism lives, so that
    larger predatory game fish will likely have the
    highest mercury levels
  • Adding to this problem is the fact that mercury
    concentrates in the muscle tissue of fish
  • Unlike organic contaminants (PCBs and dioxins)
    which concentrate in the skin and fat, mercury
    cannot be filleted or cooked out of consumable
    game fish

60
Synthetic Organic Chemicals
  • Carbon based molecular structure
  • Often contain reactive chlorine
  • Manufactured as pesticides, herbicides,
    insecticides or as insulator oil (PCB)
  • 20 million produced and about 100,000 produced
    commercially
  • Persistent in the environment
  • Soluble in fat and accumulate in tissue

61
Synthetic Organic Chemicals
  • "Over increasingly large areas of the United
    States spring now comes unheralded by the return
    of birds, and the early mornings are strangely
    silent where once they were filled with the
    beauty of bird song.
  • Rachael Carson, Silent Spring 1962

62
DDT
  • Dichloro-diphenyltrichloroethane
  • World Health Organization credits DDT with
    reducing disease
  • 1945-1960, used to control agricultural pests as
    well as disease-carrying insects (Malaria)
  • Venezuela
  • 1943 -8,171,115 cases
  • 1958 800 cases
  • Taiwan
  • 1945- 1,000,000 cases
  • 1969- 9 cases

Jones Beach on Long Island, NY
63
Cancer
  • Cancers may take 10 to 40 years to develop, and
    many factors may contribute to the appearance of
    the disease in a particular person
  • Accordingly, chemical risks tend to be described
    in terms of the numbers of people exposed -- for
    instance, 1.4 billion urban dwellers exposed to
    air quality that exceeds health guidelines, as
    WHO estimates

64
Thermal Pollution
  • Release of heat into atmosphere or water ways
  • Acute (i.e. fires from agricultural burning)
  • Chronic (i.e. hot water releases from electric
    power plants)
  • Change biological and physico-chemical
    composition of streams

65
Toxicity Testing
  • Despite widespread public concern over chemical
    safety, toxicity testing remains inadequate
  • For the vast majority of chemicals in widespread
    use, no toxicity testing results are available in
    the public record

66
Hazards
  • Of the other potential effects of chemical
    hazards, such as infertility, birth defects,
    immune system impairment, or brain damage, even
    less is known.
  • In the United States, for instance, the chief
    agency for chemical evaluation spent nearly US29
    million on testing chemicals for cancer in 1991,
    but just about 6 million for both genetic and
    reproductive effects
  • Testing for other health concerns, such as immune
    system effects or endocrine disruption, lags even
    further behind
  • United States provides an apt example according
    to a recent study, 86 percent of chemicals in
    widespread use have not been tested for
    immunotoxicity, and 67 percent have not been
    tested for neurotoxicity
  • This focus on cancer means that other important
    and preventable risks may be overlooked

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Remediation of Groundwater
  • Extraction Wells
  • Pump and Treat by filtration, oxidation or air
    stripping
  • Vapor Extraction
  • Bioremediation
  • Injection of nutrients and oxygen to encourage
    microorganism growth
  • Permeable Treatment Beds

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CHEMICAL TREATMENT
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Other Methods of Remediation
  • Natural attenuation.
  • Natural attenuation defines the natural occurring
    processes in the subsurface environment such as
    dilution, volatilization, biodegradation,
    adsorption and chemical reactions with subsurface
    compounds that contain the spread of pollution
    and reduce the concentration and amount of
    pollutants at polluted sites.
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