Uthman

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Uthman Crisis of the Early Caliphate

• Islamic History the First 150 Years

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Session Plan

1. Perceptions Perspectives
2. Uthman s Background
3. The Shura Committee
4. Uthman the Bani Umayya
5. The Murder of Uthman Causes Consequences

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Section I Perceptions
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Perceptions

• Uthmans caliphate lasted for some 12 years
• In some ways, Uthmans caliphate marks a turning
  point
• The conquests brought about large scale and
  important social changes
• Shift from nomadic to sedentary life styles
• Vast expansion of Islamic state
• Accumulation of vast wealth
• It was during Uthmans caliphate that these
  issues began to come to the fore
• Uthmans caliphate thus marks a transition, in
  some senses
• This transitional nature probably accounts for
  the wide divergence of subsequent opinion

5
Perceptions

• Some early writers saw Uthmans caliphate as
  being divided into two periods
• An early period, lasting some six years or so
• This early period is often viewed as good, in
  which Uthman is portrayed as following his
  predecessors example (or sunnah)
• A later period (the remainder of his caliphate)
• During this period, Uthman is said to have been
  increasingly at the mercy of his Umayyad
  relatives
• According to this view, this latter period sees
  Uthman diverge and fall away from this sunnah
• He is thus said to have favoured his relatives
  and have given them preferential treatment,
  despite the fact that many of them were
  relatively late converts to Islam
• Cf. Umars concept of sabiqa (or precedence)

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Perceptions

• Such a picture seems, to me, to be overly
  formulaic
• Moreover, as we explored last time, in reading
  early Islamic history we have to account for the
  influence of later thought
• The true picture is thus more complicated
• Modern writers offer interpretations
• Gibb, for example, sees the crisis as essentially
  a conflict between the Meccan aristocracy and the
  tribesmen
• Hinds, in an influential article, argues that
  these difficulties caused by the immediately
  post-conquest nature of his time

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Perspectives

• As we shall see, Uthman is an important figure in
  early Islamic history
• As such, there are a range of views on him within
  the Islamic tradition
• Broadly speaking, we can discern three main
  perspectives
• The Sunni view Uthman was a companion of
  Muhammad and a legitimate caliph (one of the four
  rightly guided caliphs)
• The Shia view Uthman (along with Abu Bakr and
  Umar) had usurped control of the Muslim community
  from Ali
• The Khawarij view Uthman had started out as a
  legitimate caliph but had gone astray and so had
  had to be removed

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Section II Uthmans Background
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Uthmans Background

• Full name Uthman ibn Affan ibn Abul-As ibn
  Umayya
• Uthman thus a member of the wealthy clan of
  Umayya
• A close relative of Abu Sufyan ibn Harb and many
  other influential members of Quraysh
• See the family tree provided
• Unlike most members of his extended family,
  Uthman was an early companion of Muhammad
• As such, Uthman was one of the few converts from
  the Meccan elite
• Uthman thus had a unique position
• Uthman married two of Muhammads daughters,
  Ruqayya and after her death, Umm Kulthum
• This gave him a distinct advantage, in terms of
  social prestige, over Abu Bakr and Umar
• Known as Dhu al-Nurayn due to this marriage (One
  of Two Lights)

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Uthmans Background

• Muhammad himself was aware of Uthmans particular
  status
• Ibn Asakir relates that Muhammad would cover his
  bare legs in Uthmans presence, which he would
  not do for Abu Bakr or Umar
• Uthman does not seem to have been a warlike
  person
• Exempted from fighting at Badr, said to have run
  from the Battle of Uhud (according to Ibn
  Asakirs report)
• He was however a very wealthy individual, and
  used this wealth in the service of the Muslim
  community
• Uthman financed important military operations
• Despite this support, he still seems to have
  possessed great wealth
• Uthman was also a useful link for Muhammad to the
  Meccan aristocracy, especially in negotiating the
  treaty of al-Hudaybiyya

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Section III The Shura Committee
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The Shura Committee

• Broadly speaking, shura means consultation
• In this context, it refers to the group of six
  senior companions appointed by Umar to decide
  upon his successor
• Umar considered them all to be important members
  of the Muslim community
• It is noteworthy that they are all senior
  companions of Muhammad (cf. Umars policy of
  sabiqa)
• Abdur Rahman ibn Awf (one of the 10 promised
  paradise)
• Uthman ibn Affan
• Ali ibn Abi Talib (Muhammads son-in-law)
• Sad ibn Abi Waqqas (a senior companion)
• al-Zubayr ibn Awwam (an early companion and the
  Prophets cousin)
• Talha ibn Ubaydallah (an early companion)

13
The Shura Committee

• Umar seems to have decided upon this course of
  action quite early on
• However, the individual members were chosen on
  his deathbed
• Umar convinced that all Quraysh had a right to
  caliphate
• And, that it should be decided by consultation
• However, important to note that this does not
  mean public election
• Rather, the decision here was restricted to
  important members of the community
• In later Islamic political theory, these were the
  ahl al-hall wa al-aqd (Those who loosen and
  bind)

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The Shura Committee

• Abdur Rahman ibn Awf said to have given up his
  claim in return for a casting vote
• Uthman and Ali were the two main candidates
• Debate continued for 3 days
• Lets look at Tabaris report of the event now
• See the Handout for the passage

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The Shura Committee

• Abd al-Rahman questioned Ali Uthman in public
  about what your might call their policies
• Gods agreement and covenant is binding on
  you. Will you indeed act in accordance with the
  Book of God i.e. the Quran, the practice
  sunna of His Messenger and the example of the
  two caliphs after him?
• To which Ali is reported to have said
• I hope to do this and act thus to the best of
  my ability
• The translation here does not fully draw out the
  significance of the reply, which was felt to be
  somewhat equivocal support for Abu Bakr Umar

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The Shura Committee

• Uthman responded with a simple, unequivocal yes
• These passges are all drawn from Tabari I. 2786
• It was on this basis that Abd al-Rahman gave the
  caliphate to Uthman
• This point is drawn out more forcefully by Tabari
  in an alternative version
• Alis response is more forceful
• Indeed no, but only based on my own effort in
  all this and in accordance with my own ability
  (I. 2793)
• Uthmans first act was to decide on the fate of
  Ubaydullah ibn Umar, who had murdered 3 people he
  suspected of being involved in his fathers
  murder
• Uthman paid the blood money on his behalf and
  freed him
• Very much against the advice of Ali

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A Brief Pause

• Turn to the person next to you and spend a couple
  of minutes summarising the lecture thus far.
• Questions?

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Section IV Uthman The Banu Umayya
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The Caliphate

• Uthmans understanding seems to have been
  affected by the circumstances of his election
• Madelung argues he was quite unprepared for his
  election and it as a direct act of God
• Madelung interprets a number of important acts in
  this light
• Official Titles
• Abu Bakr called himself Successor of the
  Messenger of God (Khalifat Rasul Allah)
• Umar called himself Sucessor of the Successor of
  the Messenger of God (Khalifat Khalifat Rasul
  Allah)
• Possibly feeling that this was too cumbersome, he
  then adopted Commander of the Faithful (Amir
  al-Muminin)
• Uthman seems to have styled himself Deputy of
  God (Khalifat Allah)
• He also used Amir al-Muminin

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Khalifa

• The word Khalifa basically means successor or
  deputy and is used in the Quran in a number of
  senses
• Adam is called a Khalifa (228) and here the term
  most probably means deputy
• In 3825 David is also described as Khalifa
  (probably with the same meaning)
• The Umayyad caliphs all either used Amir
  al-Muminin or Khalifat Allah
• Generally speaking, the mature Sunni view is that
  the term khalifat Allah is an abbreviation of
  Khalifat Rasul Allah
• This difference is important
• If Uthman meant successor then his policy would
  presumably be more restricted
• If the term meant Deputy of God then Uthman
  presumably felt he had a wider ranging authority
• This topic is one of lively current debate and
  exploring this question further would make a good
  essay topic

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Land

• Uthman seems to have approached the distribution
  of land and wealth in a different manner to his
  predecessors
• Al-Baladhuri relates an interesting story on this
  point
• At a certain point, Ali, Talha, Sad and Abd
  al-Rahman came to complain
• Uthman answered that he used his wealth to
  support his family
• Did not Abu Bakr and Umar have kin and maternal
  relations? he answered Abu Bakr and Umar
  sought reward in the hereafter by withholding
  from their kin, and I seek reward by giving to my
  kin (Ansab al-Ahsraf V.28)
• Some writers, such as Madelung, argue that this
  was an outgrowth of Uthmans view of his own role
• Uthman also granted his cousin Marwan ibn
  al-Hakam (the future caliph and father of Abd
  al-Malik) a fifth of the war booty of Africa
• This fifth (khums in Arabic) is allotted by the
  Quran to the Prophet for the running of the
  Islamic state

22
Land

• He also seems to have given money from the public
  treasury to his close relatives
• al-Baladhuris report
• He took the sums of money and borrowed money
  from the treasury saying Abu Bakr and Umar left
  what belonged to them of this money, but I take
  it and distribute it to my kin from it. The
  people criticised him for that (Ansab al-Ashraf
  V.25)
• The estate at the Oasis of Fadak (which Abu bakr
  and Umar had counted as public land) was given to
  Marwan ibn al-Hakam
• Another similar estate in the Mahzur valley of
  Medina was given to Marwans brother al-Harith
  (see family tree)
• Uthman also made alterations to the existing use
  of former crown lands (sawafi)
• Prior to the conquests, these lands had belonged
  to the Byzantine and Persian crowns.

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Land

• Umar held that these lands should be used as the
  communal property of the garrison cities
• Thus the sawaf of Kufa should be used as the
  communal property of Kufa, to pay their subsidies
• Grants from these lands were also given to
  prominent companions, such as Abdullah ibn Masud,
  Sad ibn Abi Waqqas and others
• Uthman then allowed the exchange of privately
  owned land in Arabia for former crown land in
  Iraq
• Grants from this land was then given to prominent
  Medinans who had fought at al-Qadisiya

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Governing the Provinces

• One of the major contemporary criticisms of
  Uthman was that of nepotism
• Although these charges can be viewed in a number
  of ways, many members of the wider Bani Umayya
  were appointed governors by Uthman
• Thus shortly after his accession, Ali ibn Adi ibn
  Rabia (of Abd Shams) was made governor of Mecca
• Amr ibn al-As was dismissed from Egypt and
  replaced by Abdullah ibn Sad
• Abu Musa al-Ashari, a respected companion, was
  dismissed from Basra, which was then given to
  Uthmans maternal cousin, Abdullah ibn Amir ibn
  Kurayz (Abd Shams)
• Abdullah was also given control over Bahrain and
  Uman, along with their military forces
• This was surprising given Abdullahs youth, being
  only 25 at the time

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Governing the Provinces

• al-Walid ibn Uqba appointed to the governorship
  of Kufa (in Iraq) in 26 AH
• As we have seen, at this time, Kufa was one of
  the largest and most important garrison cities
  (amsar)
• Tabari reports that al-Walid initially governed
  well, until being accused of public drunkenness
  and eventually removed (I. 2840 2850)
• Tabari reports that Ali flogged al-Walid himself
• Another relative, Said ibn al-As, made governor
  in al-Walids place
• Muawiya ibn Abi Sufyan appointed governor of
  Syria by Umar
• Uthman confirmed him in his governorship and
  augmented his province by adding to it Qinnasrin,
  Hims and Upper Mesopotamia
• This meant that Muawiya had a very large
  province and army under his personal command
• Indeed, during Uthmans reign, Muawiya led
  numerous raids against Byzantine territory,
  penetrating to some 100 miles from Constantinople
• As we shall see, Muawiyas control of Syria and
  its armies were to important later on

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Opposition

• These measures provoked opposition
• Said ibn al-As is said to have commented that
  that Iraq was a garden of Quraysh
• During an absence in Medina, serious rioting
  prompted Uthman to dismiss Said and reinstate
  Abu Musa al-Ashari
• A number of prominent companions began to express
  their discontent
• Many of these seem to have been particular
  supporters of Ali and the Bani Hashim
• Or, they were claimed as such by later Shiite
  writers
• Ammar ibn Yasir, a prominent early convert of
  humble origins, was reportedly beaten by
  supporters of Uthman
• Abdullah ibn Masud, another prominent companion,
  seems to have been similarly treated

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Opposition

• Abu Dharr al-Ghifari
• A prominent and early Bedouin convert
• Of an ascetic bent
• He is reported to have publicly denounced the
  large fortunes of many people
• His agitation seems to have caused discontent and
  Uthman sent him to Syria
• He continued his agitation there and Muawiya
  eventually returned him to Medina
• There is a divergence of opinion in some of the
  sources about his treatment
• Some sources state that he was treated well
  during his return journey
• Others state that he was tied to a camel and
  treated harshly
• He then left and went to al-Rabadhah (just
  outside of Medina), where he died soon afterwards
• See Handout provided

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Opposition

• More importantly, a number of senior companions
  began to withdraw their support
• Talha ibn Ubaydullah withdrew his support and
  seems to have criticised Uthman sharply
• Abd al-Rahman ibn Awf is reported to have become
  extremely discontented and in his last years
  refused to speak to Uthman
• He is also reported as refusing to let Uthman
  bury him

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Section V The Murder of Uthman
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The Death of Uthman

• With the dismissal of Amr ibn al-As from the
  governorship of Egypt, discontent became open
  rebellion
• The sources refer to letters sent to the
  provinces encouraging revolt from Talha ibn
  Ubaydullah and Aisha bint Abi Bakr (Muhammads
  widow)
• A group of Egyptian soldiers marched on Medina,
  calling on Uthman to repent for his misdeeds
• They were joined by others from Kufa, where they
  laid siege to Uthmans house
• Uthman at first seems to have acceded to their
  demands, but once they left he seems to have been
  persuaded by Marwan to change his mind
• This drew the rebels back to Medina, where a
  second siege then began
• Attempts at negotiating a solution wore on for
  some time, but eventually came to nought
• On 17 Dhul-Hijja, the peace was broken when a
  freedman of Marwan killed one of the besiegers

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The Death of Uthman

• Uthmans house was then attacked
• Uthman ordered his guards to lay down their arms
  and leave
• According to the sources, these included sons of
  the some of the most prominent companions, such
  as
• Abdullah ibn al-Zubayr
• al-Hasan ibn Ali
• al-Husayn ibn Ali
• The sources state that Uthman was murdered by
  Muhammad ibn Abi Bar, Kinana ibn Bishr, Sudan ibn
  Humran and Amr ibn al-Hamiq
• Muhammad was Abu Bakrs son, and since his
  fathers death had been raised by Ali (his mother
  had married Ali)
• Uthman was said to have been murdered whilst
  reciting the Quran
• And, this image of a pious old man, murdered
  unjustly is the predominant image of the Sunni
  tradition

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Consequences

• The murder of Uthman marked a major turning point
  in early Islamic history
• Although there had been problems, up to this
  point that had not boiled over into armed
  conflict
• Also, although Umar had been murdered, Uthmans
  death had been caused by other Muslims
• This set a very dangerous precedent
• The deed sent shockwaves around the Muslim world
• It also caused a deep split amongst Muslims
• A wide range of views
• Some groups believed that Uthman had to be
  removed for his alleged wickedness
• Others felt that he had been killed unlawfully
• In some ways, the question of Uthmans murder
  became the key defining issue of the time

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Consequences

• In the immediate aftermath, Ali was elected
  caliph in Medina
• However, unlike his predecessors, Alis election
  was concluded hastily, in somewhat confused
  circumstances
• That said, he seems to have received the
  unanimous support of the Medinan and Meccan
  aristocracy
• Most of the other provincial governors seem to
  have quickly acknowledged his authority
• All except Muawiya, the governor Syria
• We will look more at this in the next session

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Assessment

• In assessing Uthmans caliphate, it is important
  to understand the nature of the times he faced
• During the course of some 25 years (after
  Muhammads death) the Muslim state had expanded
  dramatically from a small, semi-nomadic polity to
  a large imperial power
• This created social, economic and political
  tensions
• Moreover, the growing need for centralised
  government also played an important role