Comer, Abnormal Psychology, 8th edition

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Treatments for Mood Disorders

• Disorders of mood as painful and disabling as
  they tend to be respond more successfully to
  more kinds of treatments than do most other forms
  of psychological dysfunction
• This range of treatment options has been a source
  of reassurance and hope for the millions of
  people who desire to regain some measure of
  control over their moods

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Treatments for Unipolar Depression

• Around half of persons with unipolar depression
  (major depressive or dysthymic disorder) receive
  treatment from a mental health professional each
  year
• In addition, many other people in therapy
  experience depressed feelings as part of another
  disorder thus, much of the therapy being done
  today is for unipolar depression

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Treatments for Unipolar Depression

• A variety of treatment approaches are currently
  in widespread use
• These can be divided into psychological,
  sociocultural, and biological approaches

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Treatments for Unipolar Depression Psychological
Approaches

• Psychological treatments used most often to
  combat unipolar depression come from three main
  schools of thought
• Psychodynamic Widely used despite no strong
  research evidence of its effectiveness
• Behavioral Primarily used for mild or moderate
  depression but practiced less than in past
  decades
• Cognitive Has performed so well in research
  that it has a large and growing clinical following

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Treatments for Unipolar Depression Psychological
Approaches
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Treatments for Unipolar Depression Psychological
Approaches
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Treatments for Unipolar Depression Psychological
Approaches
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Treatments for Unipolar Depression Psychological
Approaches
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Treatments for Unipolar Depression Psychological
Approaches
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Treatments for Unipolar Depression Psychological
Approaches
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Treatments for Unipolar Depression Psychological
Approaches
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Treatments for Unipolar Depression Sociocultural
Approaches

• Theorists trace the causes of unipolar depression
  to the broader social structure in which people
  live and to the roles they are required to play
• Two groups of sociocultural treatments are now
  widely applied multicultural approaches and
  family-social approaches

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Treatments for Unipolar Depression Sociocultural
Approaches

• Multicultural treatments
• Culture-sensitive approaches increasingly are
  being combined with traditional forms of
  psychotherapy to help maximize the likelihood of
  minority clients overcoming their disorders
• It also appears that the medication needs of many
  depressed minority clients are inadequately
  addressed

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Treatments for Unipolar Depression Sociocultural
Approaches

• Family-Social Treatments
• Interpersonal therapy (IPT)
• This model holds that four interpersonal problems
  may lead to depression and must be addressed
• Interpersonal loss
• Interpersonal role dispute
• Interpersonal role transition
• Interpersonal deficits
• Studies suggest that IPT is as effective as
  cognitive therapy for treating depression

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Treatments for Unipolar Depression Sociocultural
Approaches

• Family-Social Treatments
• Couple therapy
• The main type of couple therapy is behavioral
  marital therapy (BMT)
• Focus is on developing specific communication and
  problem-solving skills
• If marriage is filled with conflict, BMT is as
  effective as other therapies for reducing
  depression

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Treatments for Unipolar Depression Biological
Approaches

• Biological treatments can bring great relief to
  people with unipolar depression
• Usually biological treatment means antidepressant
  drugs, but for severely depressed individuals who
  do not respond to other forms of treatment, it
  sometimes includes electroconvulsive therapy or
  brain stimulation

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Treatments for Unipolar Depression Biological
Approaches

• Electroconvulsive therapy (ECT)
• One of the most controversial forms of treatment
• It is used frequently because it is an effective
  and fast-acting intervention
• The procedure consists of targeted electrical
  stimulation to cause a brain seizure
• The usual course of treatment is 6 to 12 sessions
  spaced over 2 to 4 weeks
• Treatment may be bilateral or unilateral

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Treatments for Unipolar Depression Biological
Approaches

• Electroconvulsive therapy (ECT)
• The discovery of the effectiveness of ECT was
  accidental and based on a fallacious link between
  psychosis and epilepsy
• The procedure has been modified in recent years
  to reduce some of the negative effects
• For example, patients are given muscle relaxants
  and anesthetics before and during the procedure
• Patients generally report some memory loss

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Treatments for Unipolar Depression Biological
Approaches

• Electroconvulsive therapy (ECT)
• ECT is clearly effective in treating unipolar
  depression
• Studies find improvement in 6080 of patients
• The procedure seems particularly effective in
  cases of severe depression with delusions, but it
  has been difficult to determine why ECT works so
  well
• Although effective, the use of ECT has declined
  since the 1950s because of the memory loss caused
  by the procedure, the frightening nature of the
  procedure, and the emergence of effective
  antidepressant drugs

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Treatments for Unipolar Depression Biological
Approaches

• Antidepressant drugs
• In the 1950s, two kinds of drugs were found to
  reduce the symptoms of depression
• Monoamine oxidase inhibitors (MAO inhibitors)
• Tricyclics
• These drugs have been joined in recent years by a
  third group, the second-generation antidepressants

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Treatments for Unipolar Depression Biological
Approaches

• Antidepressant drugs MAO inhibitors
• Originally used to treat TB, doctors noticed that
  the medication seemed to make patients happier
• The drug works biochemically by slowing down the
  body's production of MAO
• MAO breaks down norepinephrine
• MAO inhibitors stop this breakdown from occurring
• This leads to a rise in norepinephrine activity
  and a reduction in depressive symptoms
• Approximately half of patients who take these
  drugs are helped by them

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Treatments for Unipolar Depression Biological
Approaches

• Antidepressant drugs MAO inhibitors
• MAO inhibitors pose a potential danger
• People who take MAOIs experience a dangerous rise
  in blood pressure if they eat foods containing
  tyramine (cheese, bananas, wine)
• In recent years, a new MAO inhibitor in the form
  of a skin patch has become available
• Dangerous food interactions do not appear to be
  as common a problem with this kind of MAO
  inhibitor

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Treatments for Unipolar Depression Biological
Approaches

• Antidepressant drugs Tricyclics
• In searching for medications for schizophrenia,
  researchers discovered that imipramine relieved
  depressive symptoms
• Imipramine and related drugs are known as
  tricyclics because they share a three-ring
  molecular structure

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Treatments for Unipolar Depression Biological
Approaches

• Antidepressant drugs Tricyclics
• Hundreds of studies have found that depressed
  patients taking tricyclics have improved much
  more than similar patients taking placebos
• Drugs must be taken for at least 10 days before
  such improvement is seen
• About 6065 of patients find symptom improvement

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Treatments for Unipolar Depression Biological
Approaches

• Antidepressant drugs Tricyclics
• Most patients who immediately stop taking
  tricyclics upon relief of symptoms relapse within
  one year
• Patients who take tricyclics for five additional
  months (continuation therapy) have a
  significantly decreased risk of relapse
• Patients who take antidepressant drugs for three
  or more years after initial improvement
  (maintenance therapy) may reduce the risk of
  relapse even more

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Treatments for Unipolar Depression Biological
Approaches

• Antidepressant drugs Tricyclics
• Tricyclics are believed to reduce depression by
  affecting neurotransmitter (NT) reuptake
  mechanisms
• To prevent an NT from remaining in the synapse
  too long, a pumplike mechanism recaptures the NT
  and draws it back into the presynaptic neuron
• The reuptake process appears to be too efficient
  in some people, drawing in too much of the NT
  from the synapse
• This reduction in NT activity in the synapse is
  thought to result in clinical depression
• Tricyclics block the reuptake process, thus
  increasing NT activity in the synapse

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Reuptake and Antidepressants
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Treatments for Unipolar Depression Biological
Approaches

• Antidepressant drugs Tricyclics
• There is growing evidence that when tricyclics
  are ingested, they initially slow down the
  activity of the neurons that use norepinephrine
  and serotonin
• After a week or two, the neurons adapt to the
  drugs and go back to releasing normal amounts of
  the NTs, and the reuptake mechanism begins to
  have the desired effect
• Today, tricyclics are prescribed more often than
  MAO inhibitors
• They do not require dietary restrictions
• Some patients show higher rates of improvement

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Treatments for Unipolar Depression Biological
Approaches

• Second-generation antidepressants
• A third group of effective antidepressant drugs
  is structurally different from the MAO inhibitors
  and tricyclics
• Most of the drugs in this group are labeled
  selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs)
• These drugs increase serotonin activity
  specifically (no other NTs are affected)
• This class includes fluoxetine (Prozac),
  sertraline (Zoloft), and escitalopram (Lexapro)
• Selective norepinephrine reuptake inhibitors and
  serotonin-norepinephrine reuptake inhibitors are
  also now available

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Treatments for Unipolar Depression Biological
Approaches

• Second-generation antidepressant drugs
• In effectiveness and speed of action of these
  drugs are on a par with the tricyclics, yet their
  sales have skyrocketed
• Clinicians often prefer these drugs because it is
  harder to overdose on them than on other kinds of
  antidepressants
• There are no dietary restrictions like there are
  with MAO inhibitors
• They have fewer side effects than the tricyclics
• These drugs may cause some undesired effects of
  their own, including a reduction in sex drive

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Treatments for Unipolar Depression Biological
Approaches

• As effective as antidepressant drugs are, it is
  important to recognize that they do not work for
  everyone
• Even the most successful of them fails to help at
  least 35 percent of clients with depression

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Treatments for Unipolar Depression Biological
Approaches

• Brain stimulation
• In recent years, three additional biological
  approaches have been developed
• Vagus nerve stimulation
• Transcranial magnetic stimulation
• Deep brain stimulation

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Treatments for Unipolar Depression Biological
Approaches

• Vagus nerve stimulation
• Depression researchers surmised they might be
  able to stimulate the brain by electrically
  stimulating the vagus nerve through the use of a
  pulse generator implanted under the skin of the
  chest
• Research has found that the procedure brings
  significant relief to as many as 40 of those
  with treatment-resistant depression
• As with ECT, researchers do not yet know
  precisely why this technique reduces depression

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Vagus Nerve Stimulation
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Treatments for Unipolar Depression Biological
Approaches

• Transcranial magnetic stimulation
• Another technique designed to stimulate the brain
  without the undesired effects of ECT, TMS has
  been found to reduce depression when administered
  daily for 2 to 4 weeks
• Deep brain stimulation
• Theorizing a depression switch located deep
  within the brain, researchers have successfully
  experimented with electrode implantation in the
  brain's Brodman Area 25

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Treatments for Unipolar Depression Biological
Approaches

• Brain stimulation
• While such positive initial findings have
  produced considerable enthusiasm in the clinical
  field, it is important to recognize and remember
  that, in the past, certain promising
  interventions (e.g., lobotomies) later proved
  problematic and even dangerous upon closer
  inspection

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How Do the Treatments for Unipolar Depression
Compare?

• For most kinds of psychological disorders, no
  more than one or two treatments, if any, emerge
  as highly successful
• Unipolar depression seems to be an exception,
  responding to any of several approaches

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How Do the Treatments for Unipolar Depression
Compare?

• Findings from a number of treatment outcome
  studies suggest that
• Cognitive, cognitive-behavioral, interpersonal,
  and biological therapies are all highly effective
  treatments for mild to severe unipolar depression
• Although cognitive, cognitive-behavioral, and
  interpersonal therapies may lower the likelihood
  of relapse, they are hardly relapse-proof

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How Do the Treatments for Unipolar Depression
Compare?

• Findings from a number of treatment outcome
  studies suggest that
• When people with unipolar depression experience
  significant marital discord, couple therapy tends
  to be very helpful
• Depressed people who receive strictly behavioral
  therapy have shown less improvement than those
  who receive cognitive, cognitive-behavioral,
  interpersonal, or biological therapy

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How Do the Treatments for Unipolar Depression
Compare?

• Findings from a number of treatment outcome
  studies suggest that
• Traditional psychodynamic therapies are less
  effective than other therapies in treating all
  levels of unipolar depression
• A combination of psychotherapy and drug therapy
  is modestly more helpful to depressed people than
  either treatment alone

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How Do the Treatments for Unipolar Depression
Compare?

• Findings from a number of treatment outcome
  studies suggest that
• These various trends do not always carry over to
  the treatment of depressed children and
  adolescents
• Among biological treatments, ECT appears to be
  somewhat more effective than antidepressant drugs
  and ECT seems to act more quickly
• In addition, the newly developed brain
  stimulation treatments seem helpful for some
  severely depressed individuals who have been
  repeatedly unresponsive to drug therapy, ECT, or
  psychotherapy

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Treatments for Bipolar Disorder

• Until the latter part of the 20th century, people
  with bipolar disorders were destined to spend
  their lives on an emotional roller coaster
• Psychotherapists reported almost no success
• Antidepressant drugs were of limited help
• These drugs sometimes triggered manic episodes
• ECT only occasionally relieved either the
  depressive or the manic episodes of bipolar
  disorder

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Treatments for Bipolar Disorder Lithium and
Other Mood Stabilizers

• The use of lithium (a metallic element naturally
  occurring as mineral salt) and other
  mood-stabilizers has dramatically changed this
  picture
• Lithium is extraordinarily effective in treating
  bipolar disorders and mania
• Determining the correct dosage for a given
  patient is a delicate process
• Too low no effect
• Too high lithium intoxication (poisoning)
• Given the effectiveness, around one-third of all
  persons with bipolar disorder seek treatment in a
  given year another 15 are monitored by family
  physicians

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Treatments for Bipolar Disorder Lithium and
Other Mood Stabilizers

• All manner of research has attested to the
  effectiveness of lithium and other mood
  stabilizers in treating manic episodes
• More than 60 of patients with mania improve on
  these medications
• Most individuals experience fewer new episodes
  while on the drug
• Findings suggest that the mood stabilizers are
  also prophylactic drugs, ones that actually help
  prevent symptoms from developing
• Mood stabilizers also help those with bipolar
  disorder overcome their depressive episodes to a
  lesser degree

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Treatments for Bipolar Disorder Lithium and
Other Mood Stabilizers

• Researchers do not fully understand how mood
  stabilizing drugs operate
• They suspect that the drugs change synaptic
  activity in neurons, but in a different way from
  that of antidepressant drugs
• Although antidepressant drugs affect a neuron's
  initial reception on NTs, mood stabilizers seem
  to affect a neuron's second messengers
• These drugs also increase the production of
  neuroprotective proteins, which may decrease
  bipolar symptoms
• Another theory is that mood stabilizers correct
  bipolar functioning by directly changing sodium
  and potassium ion activity in neurons

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Treatments for Bipolar Disorder Adjunctive
Psychotherapy

• Psychotherapy alone is rarely helpful for persons
  with bipolar disorder
• Mood stabilizing drugs alone are also not always
  sufficient
• 30 or more of patients don't respond, may not
  receive the correct dose, and/or may relapse
  while taking it
• As a result, clinicians often use psychotherapy
  as an adjunct to lithium (or other
  medication-based) therapy

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Treatments for Bipolar Disorder Adjunctive
Psychotherapy

• Therapy focuses on medication management, social
  skills, and relationship issues
• Few controlled studies have tested the
  effectiveness of such adjunctive therapy
• Growing research suggests that it helps reduce
  hospitalization, improves social functioning, and
  increases clients' ability to obtain and hold a
  job