Nonhuman Primates

1
Nonhuman Primates
2
Nonhuman Primates

• Can be differentiated by
• Unique biologic characteristics
• Regions of origin
• Environmental requirements
• Nutritional requirements
• Disease susceptibility

3
Taxonomy

• Taxonomic classification is an ever-changing
  field
• Long-standing debate regarding classification of
  nonhuman primates
• Two suborders
• Strepsirrhini (wet nosed)
• Haplorrhini (dry nosed)

4
Taxonomy

• Strepsirrhini
• Includes lemurs, lorises, and galagos
• Many species resemble dogs or rodents more than
  true primates
• Snouts are elongated
• Moist nose joins with the upper lip, which
  attaches to the gum, limiting their ability to
  make facial expressions
• Brain-to-body ratio is smaller than that of
  haplorrhines
• Olfactory lobes are large

5
Taxonomy

• Strepsirrhini
• All lemurs with the exception of the aye-aye have
  a dental comb
• Most medial digit of the foot is widely separated
  from the others, allowing a tight grip for
  locomotion
• Most species are nocturnal and have sensitive
  hearing
• Natural diet consists primarily of insects

6
Taxonomy

• Strepsirrhini
• Have a breeding season rather than a cycle
• Posses a bicornate uterus with one or two pair of
  mammary glands in varying locations
• Produce 1-3 offspring

7
Taxonomy

• Haplorrhini (Tarsiers, Monkeys, and Apes)
• Suborder is divided into nine families
• Tarsiidae
• Callitrichidae
• Cebidae
• Aotidae
• Pitheciidae
• Atelidae
• Cercopithecidae
• Hylobatidae
• Hominidae

8
Taxonomy

• Haplorrhini
• No single anatomic feature distinguishes them
  from other animals
• Brain-to-body ratio is significantly greater than
  strepsirrhines
• Vision is the sense they rely on most
• Majority of species are diurnal or active in the
  daytime with the exception of tarsiers and owl
  monkeys
• Hands and feet are adapted more generally for
  locomotion
• Have a simple uterus, paired pectoral mammae,
  pendulous penis, scrotal testes, a clavicle, and
  a hallux

9
New World Primates

• Family Callitrichidae
• Marmosets and tamarins
• Among the smallest of the New World (Central and
  South American) primates
• Have soft, silky hair and long tails that are not
  prehensile
• Representative species
• Common marmosets
• Pygmy marmosets
• Golden lion tamarins
• Cotton-top tamarins

10
New World Primates

• Family Callitrichidae
• Callithrix jacchus
• Common marmoset is the callitrichid species most
  frequently used in research
• Average body weight of 300-350 g
• Unique callitrichid characteristics
• Possess claws rather than nails
• Axillary rather than anterior mammary glands
• Biovulatory
• Twinning is normal

11
New World Primates

• Family Cebidae
• Saimiri sciureus (squirrel monkey)
• One of the most common neotropical primates used
  for research
• Particularly important in study of
  artherosclerosis
• Adapt well to the laboratory
• Have short dense hair coats varying in color from
  orange to gray a dark, round muzzle and white
  hairless patches around their eyes
• Animals from different geographic areas are
  generally distinguished by having a gothic arch
  or Roman arch in reference to slightly
  different color and shape of hair around their
  eyes

12
New World Primates

• Family Cebidae
• Saimiri sciureus (squirrel monkey)
• Have long tails that are partially prehensile
• Typically weigh 500-1500 g
• Sexual dimorphism is marked primarily by body
  weight
• Males weigh 25-30 more than females

13
New World Primates

• Family Cebidae
• Sapajus (formerly Cebus) monkeys
• Also called capuchins because their coloration
  likens them to the Capuchin order of monks who
  wear dark robes and a black cap
• Have medium-length, dense hair coats ranging from
  dark brownish-black to white and long partially
  prehensile tails
• Sapajus apella (black-capped capuchin)
• Unique in having long, dark sideburns and tufts
  of dark hair arising from its brow
• Occasionally used in research

14
New World Primates

• Family Atelidae
• Ateles spp. (spider monkey)
• Aptly named because of their long, gangly arms
  and legs and thick, rounded bellies
• Anatomically unique
• Posses four fingers but no thumb
• In the wild, they are strictly arboreal
• Adults weigh 5-7 kg
• Females have an unusually long clitoris that can
  be mistaken for a penis

15
New World Primates

• Family Aotidae
• Aotus spp. (owl monkey)
• Have short, dense hair coats varying in color
  from gray to red a small, dark muzzle large,
  owl-like eyes and white crescents of hair around
  each eye
• Have long, nonprehensile tails
• Weigh 900-1200 g
• Are nocturnal, arboreal, and monogamous
• Important model for studies of human malaria,
  viral oncology, and vision
• Do not adapt well to the laboratory

16
Old World Monkeys

• Family Cercopithecidae
• Macaca mulatta (rhesus)
• Medium-sized OW (Asian or African) monkeys
• Have short, reddish-brown hair coats and
  medium-length tails
• Moderate sexual dimorphism
• Females having smaller bodies, 4-9 kg
• Males having larger bodies, 6-11 kg and large
  canine teeth

17
Old World Monkeys

• Family Cercopithecidae
• Macaca mulatta (rhesus)
• Tend to be one of the more aggressive macaque
  species
• Frequently used for vaccine testing, pharmacology
  and toxicology studies, and infectious disease
  research
• Found across a wide range of central Asia from
  Afghanistan to China
• Due to habitat destruction and religious and
  political factors, the supply from the wild is no
  longer available
• All rhesus that are imported are from domestic
  breeding programs

18
Old World Monkeys

• Family Cercopithecidae
• Macaca fascicularis (crab-eating or long-tailed
  macaque)
• Slightly smaller than rhesus
• Have long, nonprehensile tails and medium-length
  olive hair coats on the dorsum, with white to
  gray hairs on the ventrum and around their faces
• Hair around the face is longer and tends to form
  a small mane
• Males have long, sharp, canine teeth and are
  slightly larger than females

19
Old World Monkeys

• Family Cercopithecidae
• Macaca fascicularis (crab-eating or long-tailed
  macaque)
• Tend to be less aggressive than rhesus
• Found in Southeast Asia in the wild
• Animals are obtained from breeding programs
• Frequently used in drug testing and infectious
  disease research

20
Old World Monkeys

• Family Cercopithecidae
• Papio spp.
• Two species most commonly used in research
• Papio anubis (olive baboon)
• Papio cynocephalus (yellow baboon)
• Large, weighing 25-30 kg as adults
• Have long hair coats, long nonprehensile tails,
  and a long, prominent muzzle that gives them a
  dog-faced appearance

21
Old World Monkeys

• Family Cercopithecidae
• Papio spp.
• Marked sexual dimorphism
• Males weigh more, have a shoulder mane and have
  longer, dagger-like canine teeth
• Found over a wide range of Africa and tend to be
  agricultural pests
• Occasionally used for surgery and reproductive
  physiology research

22
Old World Monkeys

• Family Cercopithecidae
• Chlorocebus aethiops (African green monkey)
• Small, weighing 2-6 kg
• Have brownish-green hair coats and long
  nonprehensile tails
• Males have bright blue scrotal areas contrasting
  with red penises
• This striking coloration, when combined with the
  white fur of their undersides, is called the
  red, white, and blue display
• Occasionally used in research

23
Old World Monkeys

• Family Cercopithecidae
• Cercocebus torquatus atys (sooty mangabey)
• Susceptible to the organism that causes leprosy,
  Mycobacterium leprae
• May act as asymptomatic carriers of the simian
  immunodeficiency virus
• Have been used in leprosy and AIDS research
• Status as endangered species limits their use

24
Lesser Apes

• Family Hylobatidae
• Made up of gibbons including Hylobates spp.
• Have exceptionally long arms and no tail
• Locomotion involves brachiating from branch to
  branch
• Are arboreal and principally eat fruit and
  vegetables
• Monogamous, mate for life
• Notorious for making loud vocalization
• Listed as endangered

25
Greater Apes

• Family Hominidae
• Pan (chimpanzee)
• Highest form of nonhuman primate previously used
  in significant numbers for testing hepatitis and
  AIDS vaccines and psychobiology research
• Adults grow quite large
• Females, 40 kg
• Males, 50 kg

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Greater Apes

• Family Hominidae
• Pan (chimpanzee)
• Are endangered
• None have been imported into the U.S. from the
  wild for years
• CHIMP Act signed into law in 2000
• Provides support for construction of sanctuaries
  and for lifetime care of animals used in
  government research through funding from the NIH

27
Great Apes

• Family Hominidae
• Pongo (orangutan)
• Found in Borneo and Sumatra
• Appear to be approaching extinction
• Not used in biomedical research
• Gorilla (gorilla)
• Native to equatorial Africa
• Weigh 74-180 kg in the wild
• Are endangered
• Used rarely in studies e.g., learning and
  behavioral, that are not detrimental to their
  health

28
Uses

• Nonhuman primates share an unparalleled anatomic
  and physiologic proximity to humans
• Historically, nonhuman primates have been models
  in the study of viral disease including smallpox
  and poliovirus
• Continue to serve a critical role in biomedical
  research
• Viral diseases such as AIDS
• Toxicological investigations
• Behavior and learning
• Neurological diseases such as Parkinsons and
  Alzheimers
• Dentistry
• Reproduction
• Infectious diseases

29
Uses

• Greatest numbers used in research are macaque
  monkeys
• Rhesus
• Cynomolgus
• Squirrel monkeys, marmoset, baboons African green
  monkeys, owl monkeys, mangabeys, cebus are used
  in moderate to small numbers.

30
Behavior

• Majority of nonhuman primates are extremely
  social animals
• Most common social organization is a troop
  containing from 20-100 animals
• Baboons and macaques aggregate in sizeable troops
• Some species are solitary or live in small family
  groups

31
Behavior

• Within a troop, there is a definite hierarchical
  arrangement
• One male is the dominant or alpha male
• One female is the dominant or alpha female
• Next in the heirarchy are a small number of
  males, followed by a group of high-ranking
  females and finally a group of low-ranking males
• The position of a female in a troop normally
  remains quite stable position of the male is
  more transitory
• An animals rank has a high correlation to the
  rank of its mother

32
Behavior

• Fighting frequently occurs in social groupings
• Subordinate members will lipsmack and present
  their hindquarter to the more dominant animals
• Direct eye contact is perceived as a threat and
  will elicit aggressive behavior including yawning
  which will display their large canines and
  threatening postures
• Nonhuman primates learn reproductive and social
  behaviors from adults and must be reared in
  representative social situations to develop
  normally

33
Behavior

• Primates exhibit fewer incidences of
  stereotypical behavior when housed in social
  groups and provided with environmental enrichment
• Disadvantages to group housing include
• Increased trauma from fighting
• Inability to determine adequate food and fluid
  intake of individuals
• Inability to easily isolate individuals for
  treatment
• Despite disadvantages, social housing is
  preferred for the psychological well-being of
  these animals

34
Anatomic and Physiologic Features

• New World monkeys (Platyrrhines)
• Prehensile tails are present in some species
• No ischial callosities
• Broad-nosed
• Require dietary vitamin D3
• Do not have cheek pouches
• Do not have opposable thumbs
• Have 3 premolar teeth per quadrant

• Old World monkeys (Catarrhines)
• No prehensile tails
• Ischial callosities are present in some species
• Narrow-nosed
• Do not require dietary vitamin D3
• Cheek pouches are present in some species
• Opposable thumbs are present in all species
• Have 2 premolar teeth per quadrant

35
Anatomic and Physiologic Features

• In a number of species including macaques and
  baboon, males have formidable canine teeth that
  may serve as weapons
• There is marked sexual dimorphism of body
  structure, weight, hair coat, and size of the
  teeth in some species
• Females have a simplex-type uterus
• Most have placentas that are monodiscoid (one
  lobe) or bidiscoid (two lobes)
• Sexing is usually simple

36
Anatomic and Physiologic Features

• All female OW primates have menstrual bleeding as
  part of their sexual cycle, NW primates do not
• Twinning is extremely rate in OW, but is the norm
  in some species of NW
• Primates require a dietary source of vitamin C
• NW primates cannot utilize D2 and must be
  provided with a dietary source of vitamin D3 and
  require a higher percentage of protein in their
  diet

37
Breeding and Reproduction

• Breeding and reproductive biology is varied among
  the different species
• Puberty in OW monkeys is marked by the onset of
  menstrual cycling in the female and increased
  testicular size and spermatogenesis in the male

38
Breeding and Reproduction

• In cynomolgus and rhesus
• Initiation of menarche is between 2 and 3 years
  of age
• Sexual maturity of female is between 2.5-3.5
  years
• First birth usually occurs between 3-5 years
• Males generally mature 1-2 years later than
  females

39
Breeding and Reproduction

• Most OW species are seasonally polyestrous with
  spontaneous ovulation
• Rhesus is a seasonal breeder with most fertile
  cycles occurring in the winter months
• Menstrual cycle lasts an average of 28-30 days
• Baboons, rhesus, and chimpanzees present with
  edema and color changes of the perineal or sex
  skin that cycles with the hormonal change

40
Breeding and Reproduction

• Sex skin
• In rhesus, corrugated appearance
• In baboon, smoother appearance
• Maximum turgescence and pinkish-red color
  intensity are associated with the follicular
  phase of the menstrual cycle, estrus, and
  ovulation
• Deturgescence and decreased color intensity occur
  rapidly after ovulation and are associated with
  the luteal phase of the menstrual cycle
• Optimal mating time is 3-4 days prior to
  deturgescence

41
Breeding and Reproduction

• Many OW species and chimpanzees have a placental
  sign or vaginal bleeding
• Parturition in macaques frequently occurs in the
  late evening or early morning
• Head-first presentation of the fetus is normal

42
Breeding and Reproduction

• Infants begin nursing immediately after birth and
  nurse frequently throughout the day
• Infant macaques and baboons may begin eating
  solid food around 2-3 months of age
• Weaning is variable between species
• May occur at 1 year

43
Husbandry

• Housing and Environment
• Most suitable housing system depends on species,
  use, climatic conditions, and other factors
• Stainless steel cages with slotted or grid floors
  are commonly used in research
• Cage size specifications are found in
• Animal Welfare Act
• Guide for the Care and Use of Laboratory Animals

44
Husbandry

• Housing and Environment
• Cage with a built-in squeeze design is desirable
• Cage pans are frequently used beneath individual
  cages to collect feces and urine
• A secure lock should be used on cage doors
• Wood chips bedding may be placed in the pans to
  help absorb some of the moisture
• There may be a sloped metal floor beneath the
  cages that diverts the urine and feces into a
  sewage drain

45
Husbandry

• Environmental parameters should be rigidly
  controlled in a research setting
• Temperature 640 840 F
• Humidity 30-70
• Typically 12-14 hours of light per day
• 10-15 air changes per hour
• Ventilation from nonhuman primate housing should
  be filtered and fully exhausted to prevent
  contamination of personnel areas

46
Husbandry

• Housing and Environment
• Variety of ways to house breeding colonies
• Indoor pens connected to outdoor runs
• Covered cylindrical enclosures (corn cribs)
• Outdoor corrals with some form of protection from
  extreme weather conditions
• Free range on islands

47
Husbandry

• Environmental Enrichment and Social Housing
• AWA regulations mandate that nonhuman primates
  used in research be provided with environmental
  enrichment
• Social interaction is the best form of enrichment
• Compatibility must be determined by trial
  observation
• Newly grouped animals should never be left
  unattended for long periods

48
Husbandry

• Environmental Enrichment and Social Housing
• Some cage designs allow side-by-side or top and
  bottom cages to become one large social cage by
  pulling dividing panels
• Positive human interaction can also be used as an
  additional form of enrichment
• Other forms of enrichment
• Foraging and grooming boards
• Puzzle feeders
• Video games
• Audio e.g., music, nature sounds
• Swings or perches
• Exercise cages

49
Husbandry

• Environmental Enrichment and Social Housing
• Other forms of enrichment
• Food treats
• Fruit, peanuts, granola, flavored ice cubes,
  vegetables, popcorn
• Manipulanda
• Mirrors, balls, chains
• Enrichment items e.g., toys, must be nontoxic,
  safe, durable, and designed for laboratory
  primate use
• Best to offer a varied schedule of enrichment
  items
• Formal approval should be secured from the
  principal investigator, the IACUC, and the
  facility veterinarian prior to introduction of
  enrichment items

50
Husbandry

• Feeding and Watering
• Commercially prepared diets specifically produced
  for the species should be used
• NW diets contain a higher percentage of protein
  than OW diets and are supplemented with vitamin
  D3
• Pellets are made in different sizes to make it
  easier for the primate to grasp
• Most diets will meet the nutritional needs if
  properly stored and fed within 180 days of
  milling
• Splitting food into 2 or 3 daily feedings reduces
  wastage and approximates natural behavior

51
Husbandry

• Feeding and Watering
• Fresh potable water should be provided ad libitum
  through an automatic watering system or in water
  bottles
• Bottles are more labor intensive but provide a
  route for medication
• Automatic systems need to be checked daily as
  they can malfunction
• If animals stop eating, the water source should
  be immediately checked

52
Husbandry

• Sanitation
• All personnel must use universal precautions when
  working with nonhuman primates
• Gown or other protective outer layer, splash
  proof eye protection, cap, mask, shoe covers and
  gloves
• Protection is particularly important when working
  with soiled cages or cleaning pans underneath the
  cages
• Housing requires a minimum of once daily cleaning
  
• Racks, cages, pans, water bottles, and feed
  hoppers should be sanitized at least once every 2
  weeks

53
Husbandry

• Sanitation
• Cage pans are removed and the urine and feces are
  disposed of through a drain system or collected
  as contaminated waste
• If suspended pans are not used, feces and urine
  must be rinsed from beneath the cages and to the
  drain
• Care must be taken to avoid wetting the cage
  occupants
• Floors should be thoroughly rinsed or mopped

54
Techniques

• Handling and Restraint
• Primates are extremely strong and agile
• Chemical restraint is recommended for safe
  handling of all larger nonhuman primates
• Individuals must be trained to minimize stress to
  the animal and maximize safety for the handler
• Personnel handling primates must wear protective
  clothing

55
Techniques

• Handling and Restraint
• Great care must be taken with macaques
• Scratches from the animals or their caging,
  aerosolized material, or bites have the potential
  for transmitting Macacine herpesvirus 1 (B virus)
• Chemical restraint
• Administration of injections is facilitated by
  use of a squeeze cage
• Ketamine is most frequently used
• Individual animals have different responses

56
Techniques

• Handling and Restraint
• Manual restraint
• Risk for personal injury is increased
• Ideally performed with two handlers
• Full-length leather gloves should be worn
• Primate is squeezed to the front of the cage
• Cage is opened and the upper arms just above the
  elbows are grasped

57
Techniques

• Handling and Restraint
• Manual restraint
• Animal is removed by holding the arms behind its
  back so that the elbows nearly touch
• Second handler releases the squeeze mechanism,
  operates the cage door, and is present for safety
  reasons
• Primate should be held away from the handlers
  body to avoid being grabbed or scratched

58
Techniques

• Handling and Restraint
• Pole-and-collar method
• Requires one or two handlers
• Lightweight collar is secured around the neck of
  an anesthetized primate
• Animal is trained using positive reinforcement to
  come to the front of the cage to be grasped at
  the collar using the pole(s)
• Animal is assisted from its cage and placed in a
  restraint chair or on a restraint table where the
  neck collar is secured
• Never leave an animal unattended when in a
  restraint device

59
Techniques

• AWA regulations allow restraint devices with the
  following specifications
• Not considered a normal housing method
• Must be approved by the IACUC
• Should be for minimum time period
• Should not be used just for convenience
• May require temporary or permanent removal of
  animals that become ill, injured, or behaviorally
  altered
• If restraint over 12 hours is required, the
  animals must be provided the opportunity for
  daily unrestricted activity for at least one
  continuous hour

60
Techniques

• Identification
• Cage cards
• Used as a means of identifying individually caged
  animals
• Never used as sole means
• Permanent methods
• Tattooing the chest or thigh
• Neck tags, ear tags
• Microchip placement
• Temporary methods
• Unique hair shaving pattern or marking the hair
  or skin with a marker or dye

61
Techniques

• Blood Collection
• Femoral vein or artery
• Femoral triangle must be cleaned with alcohol or
  other antibacterial
• Needle is introduced just medial to the femoral
  pulse to obtain a venous sample.
• If an arterial sample is taken, direct pressure
  must be applied for a minimum of 3-5 minutes to
  ensure hemostasis
• Cephalic or saphenous vein

62
Techniques

• Blood Collection
• Primates can be trained using positive
  reinforcement to offer their arms or legs for
  blood collection
• Vascular access ports and tether systems can be
  used for long-term blood collection and chronic
  dosing of agents

63
Techniques

• Urine Collection
• Free-catch
• Metabolism cage
• Cystocentesis
• Palpate bladder to ensure there is adequate urine
  present
• Abdomen should be cleaned with alcohol
• Placement of urinary catheter

64
Techniques

• Drug Administration
• Routes are similar to those of other large
  mammals
• Oral dosing
• Place drug in piece of fruit or treat
• Crush tablet and mix with favorite food
• Mix drug in flavored yogurt or juice
• Monkeys can be trained to take juice from a
  syringe
• Using a nasogastric or orogastric tube

65
Techniques

• Drug Administration
• SC
• In loose skin over the dorsal cervical area
• IM
• Thigh muscles, avoiding sciatic nerve
• Triceps and gluteal muscles can be used in larger
  monkeys
• IV
• Cephalic, jugular, or saphenous vein
• Surgical implant of a vascular access port for
  long-term dosing
• Tether system can be used for continuous infusion
  of drugs

66
Anesthesia, Surgery, andPostoperative Care

• NW primates have a higher metabolic rate than OW
• Often require higher dosages of anesthetics per
  kg
• Macaques
• Commonly anesthetized with an IM injection of
  ketamine to remove them from their cage
• If dose is inadequate for intubation, an IV dose
  of propofol or ketamine can be given
• Intubated and maintained by inhalation anesthesia
• Animals should be premedicated with atropine or
  glycopyrrolate

67
Anesthesia, Surgery, andPostoperative Care

• Ketamine alone is not satisfactory for major
  surgery may be combined with xylazine for
  short-term procedures
• Depth of anesthesia gauged by
• Rate and depth of respiration
• Heart rate
• Degree of jaw tension
• Palpebral and pedal reflexes

68
Anesthesia, Surgery, andPostoperative Care

• Intraoperatively, a circulating water heating
  blanket should be used to maintain body
  temperature
• An indwelling catheter should be placed for
  administration of fluids and/or emergency drugs
• Imperative to use sterile technique

69
Anesthesia, Surgery, andPostoperative Care

• Routine surgical procedures
• Finger and tail amputations
• Laceration repair due to fight injuries
• Subcuticular suturing pattern is recommended
• Postoperatively
• Place animal in recovery cage
• Provide supplemental heat to maintain body
  temperature
• Observe until primate is sitting in upright
  position

70
Anesthesia, Surgery, andPostoperative Care

• Analgesics
• Essential to minimize pain
• Preemptive use is most effective
• Dose and frequency of administration of agents
  must be tailored to animal, procedure, and likely
  level of pain
• Opioids and nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory can be
  used individually or in combination

71
Euthanasia

• Animal is sedated with ketamine and then given an
  IV overdose of barbiturate or commercial
  euthanasia solution
• An anesthetized animal can be given a bolus of
  potassium chloride or exsanguinated and perfused
  with a tissue fixative

72
Introduction to Diseases of Nonhuman Primates

• Basic knowledge of infectious agents is
  imperative to quickly and appropriately respond
  to a disease outbreak
• Most common health problems
• Bacterial enteritis
• Bacterial pneumonia
• Diseases may be latent and then become active by
  the stress of transportation, change in diet, or
  a new environment

73
Introduction to Diseases of Nonhuman Primates

• Nonhuman primates should be placed in quarantine
  and receive a thorough physical exam after
  arrival in a new facility
• Animals tend to be stoic making accurate
  detection of clinical signs of illness or
  distress challenging
• If possible, animals should be observed without
  the animals awareness of the observers presence

74
Introduction to Diseases of Nonhuman Primates

• Physical exam
• Attention should be given to evidence of
  diarrhea, nasal or ocular discharge, dyspnea,
  condition of skin and hair coat, alertness, and
  nutritive state
• Areas that should receive particular attention
• Body weight
• Body condition
• Lymph nodes
• Mouth
• Palpable reproductive organs
• Digits

75
Zoonotic Diseases

• All nonhuman primates must be regarded as
  potential sources of zoonotic diseases
• Significant zoonotic bacterial diseases
• Tuberculosis
• Shigellosis
• Salmonellosis
• Melioidosis
• Staphylococcal and Streptococcal infections

76
Zoonotic Diseases

• Significant zoonotic viral diseases
• Macacine herpesvirus 1 (herpes B)
• Viral hepatitis
• Poxviruses
• Yellow fever
• SV-40
• Poliomyelitis
• Rabies
• Measles

77
Zoonotic Diseases

• Significant zoonotic parasites
• Entamoeba histolytica
• Enterobius vermicularis
• Malaria can also be transmitted if a vector is
  available
• Many parasites of OW monkeys are transmissible to
  humans
• Parasites of NW monkeys are generally not
  transmissible to humans

78
Bacterial Diseases

• Pneumonia and Respiratory Diseases
• Tuberculosis
• One of the most devastating diseases
• Mycobacterium tuberculosis most frequent strain
  causing disease
• Transmission is from humans to nonhuman primates
  in captivity
• Disease is more prevalent in OW monkeys than in
  NW monkeys
• Young macaques are the most susceptible group

79
Bacterial Diseases

• Pneumonia and Respiratory Diseases
• Tuberculosis
• Often a rapid dissemination through the colony
• Often prior to development of clinical signs
• Route of transmission
• Aerosols via the respiratory tract
• Can include intestinal tract, cutaneous infection
  through bites or tattoo needles, and though
  exposure to blood, sputum, excreta, CSF, and
  lesion exudates

80
Bacterial Diseases

• Pneumonia and Respiratory Diseases
• Tuberculosis
• Clinical signs
• Pneumonia
• Diarrhea
• Skin ulceration
• Suppuration of lymph nodes
• Necropsy findings
• Yellowish caseous nodules in the lungs and hilar
  lymph nodes
• Liver, spleen, and other lymph nodes frequently
  involved

81
Bacterial Diseases

• Pneumonia and Respiratory Diseases
• Tuberculosis
• Diagnosis
• No one premortem test can definitely diagnose TB
• Combination of tests is recommended
• ID tuberculin skin test injected in upper
  palpebra
• Area observed at 24, 48, and 72 hours
  post-injection for delayed-type hypersensitivity
  reaction
• False positive and negative tests may be produced
• Tissue, sputum, bronchoalveolar lavage, and
  gastric aspiration contents used for culture
  and/or special staining
• Radiographs

82
Bacterial Diseases

• Pneumonia and Respiratory Diseases
• Tuberculosis
• Treatment
• Infected animals usually culled due to risk they
  present to other animals and humans
• Possible for very valuable animals
• Long-term administration of isoniazid or
  combination with streptomycin or other drugs

83
Bacterial Diseases

• Pneumonia and Respiratory Diseases
• Tuberculosis
• Disadvantages of using isoniazid
• Resistant strains
• Mask the disease
• Cause pyridoxine deficiency
• Alter experimental results
• Control
• Quarantine
• Testing
• Elimination of reactors

84
Bacterial Diseases

• Pneumonia and Respiratory Diseases
• Streptococcus pneumoniae
• Common cause of fibrinopurulent pneumonia in OW
  primates
• Transmission is by aerosol
• Stress and waning passive immunity in neonates
  play a role in predisposing animals to infection
  and disease
• Bordetella bronchiseptica
• Causes fibrinopurulent hemorrhagic
  bronchopneumonia in NW monkeys less of a problem
  in OW

85
Bacterial Diseases

• Pneumonia and Respiratory Diseases
• Other organisms
• Klebsiella pneumoniae
• Pasteurella multocida
• Haemophilus influenzae
• Staphylococcus aureus
• Streptococcus spp.
• Clinical signs are generally nonspecific
• Fever, rapid pulse, sneezing, coughing,
  mucopurulent nasal discharge, lethargy, anorexia,
  and dyspnea

86
Bacterial Diseases

• Pneumonia and Respiratory Diseases
• Necropsy findings
• Consolidated lungs that are red-to-gray
• Fibrinous pleuritis
• Pericarditis
• Treatment
• Culture and determination of antibiotic
  sensitivities are important
• Supportive care
• Maintain temperature at comfortable level
• Nutritional supplements and fluids
• Bronchodilators and decongestants are often
  useful

87
Bacterial Diseases

• Pneumonia and Respiratory Diseases
• Moraxella catarrhalis
• Causative agent for bloody nose syndrome in
  macaques
• Organism does not always induce disease
• Clinical signs
• Epistaxis and occasionally periorbital edema
• Diagnosis
• Isolation of diplococcal organism
• Treatment
• Antibiotics e.g., amoxicillin-clavulonic acid,
  cephalosporins, trimethoprim-sulfa,
  tetracyclines, fluoroquinolones

88
Bacterial Diseases

• Bacterial Gastroenteritis
• Three of the most common types are
• Campylobacteriosis
• Shigellosis
• Salmonellosis
• Campylobacteriosis
• Campylobacter jejuni most frequently isolated
• Primarily found in OW primates
• Asymptomatic carriers are common

89
Bacterial Diseases

• Bacterial Gastroenteritis
• Campylobacteriosis
• Transmission is fecal-oral
• Clinical signs
• Watery diarrhea without blood or mucous
• Severe dehydration
• Diagnosis
• Fecal culture on special media
• Treatment
• Supportive care including rehydration and
  correction of electrolyte abnormalities
• Antibiotic use has been debated

90
Bacterial Diseases

• Bacterial Gastroenteritis
• Shigellosis
• Most commonly involves Shigella flexneri
• Transmission between nonhuman primates and from
  humans to nonhuman primates if by fecal-oral
  route
• Stress may precipitate disease
• Infections in primates and humans range from
  asymptomatic carriers to acute fulminant dysentery

91
Bacterial Diseases

• Bacterial Gastroenteritis
• Shigellosis
• Clinical signs
• Depression blood-tinged, mucoid diarrhea
  weakness emaciation dehydration abdominal
  pain
• Diagnosis is by culture of organism
• Necropsy
• Colon is usually distended and contains mucus
• Treatment
• Antibiotics selected through antibiotic
  sensitivity
• Supportive care may be provided to symptomatic
  and asymptomatic individuals
• Environmental decontamination

92
Bacterial Diseases

• Bacterial Gastroenteritis
• Salmonella spp.
• Less common cause of gastroenteritis
• Contaminated feed and contact with infected
  animals are principal sources of infection
• Clinical signs are similar to shigellosis except
  that vomiting is more common and disease is less
  acute
• Necropsy
• Pasty-to-liquid intestinal contents
• Swollen and reddened intestinal mucosa (ileum)
• Splenic congestion

93
Bacterial Diseases

• Bacterial Gastroenteritis
• Treatment
• Supportive care
• Antibiotics based on culture and sensitivity
• Antisecretory drugs and other intestinal
  absorbents
• Fluid and electrolyte replacement is essential in
  cases of severe diarrhea
• NW primates often require higher relative volumes
  of fluids than OW

94
Bacterial Diseases

• Tetanus
• Caused by neurotoxins produced by Clostridium
  tetani
• Both OW and NW monkeys and apes are susceptible
• Clinical signs
• Tonic muscle spasms, trismus, dysphagia,
  opisthotonos, seizures, respiratory paralysis,
  death
• Treatment
• Tetanus antitoxin
• Prevention
• Vaccinate primates that are housed outdoors

95
Bacterial Diseases

• Other Zoonotic Bacterial Organisms
• Helicobacter pylori
• OW monkeys harbor organism in stomach
• Usually asymptomatic can cause inappetence and
  vomiting
• Treatment similar to humans
• Lawsonia intracellularis
• Cause of proliferative enteritis
• Epizootics of disease are usually confined to
  young animals
• Transmission is fecal-oral
• Clinical signs
• Mild diarrhea and abdominal distension

96
Bacterial Diseases

• Other Zoonotic Bacterial Organisms
• Yersinia psudotuberculosis or Y. enterocolitica
• Causative agents of pseudotuberculosis
• Transmission is by ingestion of contaminated feed
• Clinical signs
• Diarrhea
• Depression
• Dehydration
• Acute death

97
Bacterial Diseases

• Other Zoonotic Bacterial Organisms
• Burkholderia pseudomallei
• Causes melioidosis
• Designated as Tier 1 select agent by CDC and USDA
• Disease has been reported in OW monkeys and apes
• Organism can remain latent for years
• Transmission
• Contact with contaminated environment
• Not readily transmitted between individuals

98
Bacterial Diseases

• Other Zoonotic Bacterial Organisms
• Burkholderia pseudomallei
• Clinical signs
• Generally nonspecific depending on affected organ
• Bronchopneumonia
• Subcutaneous abscesses
• Lymphadenitis
• Swollen joints
• Gross findings
• Suppurative or caseous nodules in various tissues
• Pneumonia
• Infections are frequently resistant to treatment

99
Mycotic Diseases

• Dermatophytosis
• Ringworm is caused by several Microsporum spp.
  and Trichophyton spp.
• Treatment
• Long-term systemic griseofulvin

100
Mycotic Diseases

• Systemic Mycoses
• Pneumocystis carinii
• Opportunistic pathogen seen in immunosuppressed
  primates
• Clinical signs
• Fever
• Dyspnea
• Coughing
• Diagnosis of fungal cysts is made with special
  stains

101
Mycotic Diseases

• Systemic Mycoses
• Histoplasma capsulatum
• Etiologic agent of African histoplasmosis
• Reported in baboons maintained outdoors
• Transmission if from dermal contact, inhalation
  or ingestion of spores from contaminated soil or
  direct contact with infected primates
• Skin, lymph nodes, and bones are affected
• Treatment
• Antibiotics

102
Mycotic Diseases

• Systemic Mycoses
• Nocardiosis
• Commonly seen as a granulomatous disease of lungs
• Differentiated from TB by absence of hilar lymph
  node involvement
• Other
• Moniliasis rare unless debilitated
• Aspergillosis rare unless debilitated
• Coccidioides immitis
• Blastomyces dermatitidis
• Cryptococcus neoformans

103
Viral Diseases

• Herpesviruses
• Large number have been isolated from different
  species
• Pathogenic effects of many have not been
  established
• Alphaherpesvirus infections involve two types of
  hosts
• Reservoir or natural host in which virus exists
  as a subclinical or latent infection
• Aberrant or accidental host in which disease is
  fatal
• Important to consider hosts when selecting
  physical placement and path of personnel and
  movement of equipment between colonies of primate
  species

104
Viral Diseases

• Herpesviruses
• Herpes simplex virus (Human herpesvirus 1)
• Cause of fever blisters in humans
• Humans are reservoir hosts
• Marmosets, tamarins, and owl monkeys are aberrant
  hosts that suffer fatal infections
• Lesions in affected nonhuman primates include
• Ulceration of lips, tongue, and gastrointestinal
  tract
• Hepatic necrosis

105
Viral Diseases

• Herpesviruses
• Saimiriine herpesvirus 1
• Natural host is squirrel monkey
• Fatal infections commonly occur in owl monkeys,
  tamarins, and marmosets
• Lesions
• Facial swelling with self-mutilation
• Ulceration of lips, tongue, and gastrointestinal
  tract
• Hepatic necrosis
• Virus is not zoonotic

106
Viral Diseases

• Herpesviruses
• Other agents not recognized as zoonotic but can
  induce serious, fatal disease in aberrant host
  species
• Cercopithecine herpesvirus 2
• Cercopithecine herpesvirus 9
• Saimiriine herpesvirus 2
• Ateline herpesvirus

107
Viral Diseases

• Herpesviruses
• Macacine herpesvirus 1
• Commonly referred to as herpes B virus
• Important zoonotic disease of macaques
• Macaques are natural hosts
• Infection is lifelong with intermittent
  reactivation and shedding of virus in saliva or
  genital secretions
• Humans are aberrant hosts
• Transmission to humans
• Usually through bites and scratches from infected
  macaques
• Can occur through contaminated medical equipment,
  fomites, or caging

108
Viral Diseases

• Herpesviruses
• Macacine herpesvirus 1
• Clinical signs in macaques
• Conjunctivitis
• Vesicles/ulcers on the oral or genital mucosa
• Recommended to obtain macaques from herpes B
  negative colonies
• Does not eliminate the possibility of disease
• All macaques should be treated as potentially
  infectious carriers

109
Viral Diseases

• Herpesviruses
• Macacine herpesvirus 1
• Appropriate protective clothing should be worn to
  prevent exposure
• Gown, gloves, mask, full eye protection
• Universal precautions should be followed in
  handling all equipment and specimens that may be
  contaminated with macaque blood, urine, saliva,
  or tissues

110
Viral Diseases

• Herpesviruses
• Macacine herpesvirus 1
• Personnel working with or around macaques should
  be educated about clinical manifestations of
  herpes B infection in humans and potentially
  fatal consequences
• Standard operating procedure to deal with
  exposure must be in place
• Who to contact
• Where to go to be examined by occupational health
  physician
• Items that need to be readily available
• First aid materials
• Written instructions for specimen collection from
  humans and the nonhuman primate

111
Viral Diseases

• Herpesviruses
• Macacine herpesvirus 1
• Occupational health physician will make
  determination for further treatment
• Additional wound cleaning
• Antiviral treatment
• Sample collection
• Paired sera obtained from human and monkey on day
  of exposure and 3 weeks later
• Viral cultures taken from
• Buccal mucosa, genital mucosa, and conjunctiva of
  each eye of the macaque
• Human exposure site
• Cultures should be submitted to the B Virus
  Research and Reference Laboratory at Georgia
  State University

112
Viral Diseases

• Herpesviruses
• Macacine herpesvirus 1
• Clinical signs in humans
• Vesicles, pain and itching at exposure site,
  lymphadenopathy, fever, numbness, muscle weakness
  or paralysis, conjunctivitis, neck stiffness,
  sinusitis, headache, nausea, vomiting, altered
  mental state and other CNS signs
• Early treatment of humans with an antiviral agent
  halts disease progression but does not appear to
  eliminate the virus
• Exposed individuals should be closely monitored
  by a physician until free of infection

113
Viral Diseases

• Measles (rubeola)
• Human paramyxovirus can infect OW and NW monkeys
  and apes
• Humans serve as disease reservoir
• Highly contagious
• Transmission by aerosol or direct contact with
  secretions
• Commonly produces a mild upper respiratory
  infection

114
Viral Diseases

• Measles (