TOEFL: Structure and Written Expression

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TOEFL Structure and Written Expression
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General Strategies

• Be familiar with the directions.
• Begin with questions 1-15 (Structure). Questions
  1-5 are easier and 11-15 are harder.
• Continue with questions 16-40 (Written
  Expression). Questions 16-20 are easier and 36-40
  are harder.
• Do not take too much time with each item. If you
  have time left you can go back and check 11-15
  and 36-40.
• Do not leave any blank answers on the answer
  sheet.

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Strategies for Structure Questions

• First, study the sentence.
• Then study each answer choice based on how well
  it completes the sentence.
• Do not try to eliminate incorrect options by
  looking only at the answers.
• Be aware that in this section most of the items
  will require you to identify the subject or the
  verb (or both) in the correct order of subject
  verb (except on items with inverted structure).
• Do not spend too much time on this section. Leave
  enough time for the Written Expression Section.

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Characteristics of a Sentence

• A sentence can be formed by one or more clauses.
• Clauses can be independent and dependent/subordina
  te clauses. All sentences must have subject and
  verb.
• Sentences can be simple, compound, complex, and
  compound-complex.
• A simple sentence is formed by only one
  independent clause.
• I went to the movies yesterday afternoon.
• Independent clause

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• A compound sentence is formed by two or more
  independent clauses connected by coordinate
  conjunctions (for, and, nor, but, or, yet, so
  FANBOYS).
• I went to the movies last night, and I had a
  great time.
• Independent clause conjunction Ind. clause
• A complex sentence is formed by one independent
  clause and one or more dependent clauses.
• I went to the movies after I had finished my
  homework.
• Independent Clause connector Dependent Clause

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• A compound-complex sentence is formed by more
  than one independent clause and at least one
  dependent clause.
• I went to the movies, and I had a great time
  because the movie Indep. Clause
  conj. Indep. Clause connector
  Dep. Cl.
• was terrific.

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Characteristics of a Clause

• Every clause must have a subject and a verb. A
  complement is optional.
• There are two types of clauses independent and
  dependent (or subordinated).
• Independent clauses have a complete idea and can
  stand alone in a sentence.
• Dependent clauses complement the independent
  clause, but do not have a complete idea and
  cannot stand alone in a sentence.

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• There are three types of dependent clauses
• Noun clauses function as a noun, so they can be
  subjects, objects of a verb, or objects of a
  preposition.
• I understand how you feel.
• Adjective clauses function as an adjective and
  describe a noun or pronoun from the main clause.
• I know the man who works in that office.
• Adverb clauses function as an adverb and give
  additional information about the verb (how, when,
  where, and why)
• I know that man because he works with my
  father.
• Note We will see these in more detail in the
  skills.

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Skills 1-5Simple Sentences one subject one
verb

• SKILL 1 BE SURE THE SENTENCE HAS A SUBJECT AND A
  VERB
• Engineers are needed for work.
• S V
• The boy will be going to the movies.
• S V
• SKILL 2 BE CAREFUL OF OBJECTS OF PREPOSITIONS
• In the past a woman in politics wasnt common.
• OP S
  OP V
• For the fever he took aspirine tablets.
• OP S V

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• SKILL 3 BE CAREFUL OF APPOSITIVES
• An appositive is a noun or noun phrase which
  describes
• another noun or pronoun. It is normally set off
  by commas.
• Tom, a good mechanic, is fixing a car.
• S APP
  V
• A good mechanic, Tom is fixing a car.
• APP S V
• A good mechanic, Tom, is fixing
  a car.
• S
  APP V

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IT AND THERE

• Strategy
• Some sentences or clauses begin with it or
  there. Be aware of the constructions that follow
  these subjects. In the Structure section, parts
  of a sentence including it and there may be
  omitted.
• A sentence or clause may begin with the words it
  or there.
• 1) It is used in three ways
• It is used as subject followed by the verb to be
• It was in 1761 that she came to Boston. (It to
  be that)
• It is used as subject when the information is
  related to an adjective
• It was important to be free. (It to be
  adjective infinitive)
• It is used as a subject when it is used with a
  time phrase
• It took her a few years to learn English. (It
  take time phrase infinitive)

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• 2) There shows that something or someone exists
  at a special time or place. In this use, the word
  there follows this construction
• there to be subject
• There are many books about Phyllis Wheatley
  today.
• There was a big storm yesterday.
• In these clauses the verb to be and the subject
  must agree on person.
• Expletive
• Function noun1 a a syllable, word, or phrase
  inserted to fill a vacancy (as in a sentence or a
  metrical line) without adding to the sense
  especially a word (as it in "make it clear
  which you prefer") that occupies the position of
  the subject or object of a verb in normal English
  word order and anticipates a subsequent word or
  phrase that supplies the needed meaningful
  content.
• Source Merriam Webster Online Dictionary
  http//www.m-w.com/

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• SKILL 4 BE CAREFUL OF PRESENT PARTICIPLES
  (Adjectives)
• Do not confuse them with present progressive
• The boy is standing in the corner.
• S V
• The boy standing in the corner looks
  suspicious.
• S Adjective
  V
• The present participle works as an adjective
• Tip If it does not have a form of be, it is not
  a verb.

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• SKILL 5 BE CAREFUL OF PAST PARTICIPLES
• Do not confuse them with the following
• Simple past She painted the picture.
• Present/Past Perfect She has/had painted the
  picture.
• Passive Voice The picture was painted by Karen.
• The past participle works as an adjective
• The picture painted looks wonderful.
• S Adjective
  V
• Tip If it does not have a form of be or have, it
  is not a verb.

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Skills 6-8 Sentences with Multiple clauses

• 1) Compound sentences A compound sentence is a
• sentence with two or more main or independent
  clauses that
• can be connected with coordinating conjuctions
  (acronym
• FANBOYS)
• for and nor but or
  yet so
• These sentences normally have a comma before the
  conjunction/connector.

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• Ana laughed, but she wanted to cry.
• s v con. s v
• The TOEFL exam will be difficult, so we must
  study hard.
• s v con.
  s v
• The weather was great, and the sun was shining.
• s v con. s
  v

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• 2) Complex Sentences A complex sentence is one
  that has a main or independent clause and a
  subordinated clause.
• Adverb Clauses These clauses give information
  about the verb in the independent clause
• Time
  Cause
• after because
• as since
• as long as now that
• before inasmuch as
• as soon as
• when
• while
• since
• until
• etc.

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• Condition Contrast Manner Place
• If although as where
• In case even though in that wherever
• provided though
• providing while
• unless whereas
• whether

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• Teresita went inside because it was raining.
• Subject verb con. Subj.
  verb
• I am going to go to the movies as soon as I
  finish my TOEFL
• Sub. verb con.
  Subj. verb
• exercises.
• Although there is a lot of information to learn
  for the TOEFL
• Con. Subj. verb
• exam, you can get the 600 points if you work
  hard.
• Subj. Verb
  con. Subj. verb

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SKILLS 9-12 Noun and Adjective Clauses

• Noun clauses They are the second type of
  subordinated clauses. They work as nouns, so they
  can be subjects, objects of a verb, or objects of
  a preposition.
• Noun clauses as any other clause have the normal
  order of
• Subject Verb. Noun clauses you have used
  before
• Indirect/embedded/polite questions
• Where is the bank?
• Could you tell me where the bank is?
• Does he work here?
• Do you know if he works here?
• Noun clauses answer the question What? and
  can be substituted by it.

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SKILL 9 USE NOUN CLAUSE CONNECTORS CORRECTLY

• Noun connectors what, when, where, why, how,
  whatever, whenever, whether, if, that.
• As object of the verb What do you know?
• I know what you did.
• S V con. S V
• As object of a preposition What are you
  concerned about?
• I am concerned about when he will arrive.
• S V
  Prep. C S V
• As subject of the sentence What is not
  important?
• Con. S V
• When he will arrive is not important.
• Subject V

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SKILL 10 USE NOUN CLAUSE CONNECTOR/SUBJECTS
CORRECTLY

• Who, whoever, what, whatever, which, whichever
  Can be
• connectors and subjects of the clause at the same
  time.
• 1. As object of the verb What do you know?
• I know what happened.
• S V C/S
  V
• 2. As subject of the sentence What was great?
• What happened was great
• C /S V
  V
• 3. As subject of all the sentence What was
  wrong?
• C S V
• What you did was wrong
• Subject Verb

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• Adjective clauses These are the third type of
  dependent or subordinate clause. They have the
  same function as an adjective describe a noun
  (person, place, thing).
• This is the book which I bought yesterday.
• Describes the
  book.
• The man who is standing over there helped me.
• Describes the man
• Adjective clauses, like all other clauses, need
  to have at least a subject and a verb.
• Adjective clauses go immediately after the noun
  they are describing, so they can appear in the
  middle or end of the sentence.

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• Adjective connectors Who (people), whom
  (people/object and after prepositions), which
  (things), that (people or things, but cannot be
  used after prepositions or when the adjective
  clause is between commas), where (places), whose
  (possessive).
• I liked the book which you recommended.
• S V C
  S V
• The man who you recommended was hired
  yesterday.
• S C S
  V V
• Who (people), which (things) that (people or
  things) Can be connector and subject of the
  clause at the same time.
• She needs a secretary who can type fast
• S V
  C/S V
• A secretary who can type fast is invaluable
• S C/S V
  V

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Skills 13-14 Reduced Clauses

• 1) Adjective Clauses Only adjective clauses
  where the connector works as subject of the
  clause can be reduced.
• Clauses with a be form Omit the connector and
  the form of be
• The girl (that is) sitting over there is my
  sister.
• The car (which was) bought by my father is a
  racing car.
• The house (that is) on sale is very old.
• Clauses with no form of be Omit the connector
  and change the main verb to -ing form.
• I dont understand the article (which appears)
  in todays paper.
• I dont understand the article appearing in
  todays paper.

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Adjective Clauses separated by commas

• If the original adjective clause was separated by
  commas the reduced clause keeps the commas
• The homework, which was given by the math
  teacher, is due tomorrow.
• The homework, given by the math teacher, is due
  tomorrow.
• We can also change the position of the adjective
  clause and put it at the beginning of the
  sentence.
• The president, (who is) now preparing to give a
  speech, is meeting with his advisors.
• Now preparing to give a speech, the president is
  meeting with his advisors.

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• 2) Adverb Clauses Only adverb clauses that have
  the same
• subject as the main clause can be reduced.
• Clauses with a form of be Keep the connector
  and omit the subject and the form of be of the
  adverb clause.
• Although he is rather unwell, the speaker will
  take part in the seminar.
• Although rather unwell, the speaker will take
  part in the seminar.
• Clauses with no form of be
• Keep the connector, omit the subject and change
  the main verb to -ing form.
• Although he feels rather sick, the speaker will
  take part in the seminar.
• Although feeling rather sick, the speaker will
  take part in the seminar.

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• Some adverb clauses can only be reduced if they
  are in passive
• voice. For example, with adverb clauses with
  once can only be
• reduced if the verb is in passive voice
• Cannot be reduced
• Once you arrive, you can start the exam.
• Can be reduced
• Once the exercises are answered, they are
  checked by the teacher.
• Once answered, the exercises are checked by the
  teacher.
• Adverb clauses of cause cannot be reduced
• as, because, inasmuch as, now that, since

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Skills 15-19 Subject and verb inverted

• 1) In questions the normal order of subject and
  verb/aux. is inverted
• Yes/No questions
• With verb to be Are you a teacher?
• V S
• With other verbs Did you go to the beach?
• Aux. S V
• Information questions
• With verb to be Where are you?
• QW V S
• With other verbs What did you do?
• QW A S V

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• 2) Subject and Verb inverted after place
  expressions When we have place words or
  expressions at the beginning of a clause we have
  to invert the normal order of subject verb.
• With verb to be Here is the book you lent me.
• V S
• Around the corner is Sams house.
• V S
• With other verbs
• Nowhere have I seen such beautiful weather.
• A S V
• In the closet are the clothes that you need.
• V S

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• The inversion of subject verb with place
  expressions is only necessary when the expression
  is essential to complete the sentence.
• Necessary In the forest are many exotic birds.
• V S
• Not necessary In the forest, I walked for many
  hours.
• 
  S V
• 3) Invert subject verb with negatives or
  almost negative words The subject and verb are
  also inverted after certain negatives and related
  expressions no, not, never, neither, nor,
  barely, hardly, only, rarely, scarcely, seldom
• With verb to be Rarely were they so happy.
• V S
• With other verbs Not only did he pass, he got a
  100.
• A S V

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• 4) Invert the subject with conditionals (Implied
  Conditionals). In certain conditional structures,
  the subject and the verb may also be inverted.
• When the conditional clause has Had, should or
  were
• Should S V base form (First Conditional)
• If I should finish early, Ill help you.
• Should I finish early, Ill help you.
• Were S (Second Conditional)
• If he were here, he would help.
• Were he here, he would help.
• Had S V base form (Third Conditional)
• If you had studied more, you wouldve passed.
• Had you studied more, you wouldve passed.

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• 5) The inversion with comparatives is optional
  and it can be used in formal writing.
• All of these forms are correct
• My sister spends more hours in the office than
  John.
• My sister spends more hours in the office than
  John does.
• INVERSION COMPARATIVE Aux/V S
• My sister spends more hours in the office than
  does John.
• We were more prepared than the other performers.
• We were more prepared than the other performers
  were.
• INVERSION COMPARATIVE Aux/V S
• We were more prepared than were the other
  performers.

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General Strategies for Written Expression

• First, look at the underlined word or groups of
  words to see if you can identify an incorrect
  form or structure.
• Then, read all the sentence to verify the correct
  form and structure of the four answer choices.
  Some underlined options are incorrect because of
  something in another part of the sentence.
• Never leave any answers blank.

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Skills 20-23 Subject-Verb Agreement

• 1) Be careful with prepositional phrases
• If the subject is singular the verb is singular
• The key to the doors IS in the drawer.
• Ob.Prep.
• If the Subject is plural the verb is plural
• The keys to the doors ARE in the drawer.
• Ob.Prep.
• .

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• 2) Make verbs agree after expressions of
  quantity all/most/some/half of the.
• Singular count noun All of the book was
  interesting
• Plural count noun All of the books were
  interesting
• Non-count nouns All of the information was
  interesting.
• 3) When we have structures where we have to
  invert the normal order of subject verb we have
  to be careful to make the verb agree with the
  subject. Remember this inversion is applied in
  questions, after expressions of place, after
  negative or almost negative words, in conditional
  clauses without if, and after comparisons.
  After these structures the order is
• With verb to be verb subject
• With other verbs aux. subject verb

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• Never is she late to class.
• Should Mary eat candy, she must brush her teeth.
  
• In the first drawer is the book you are looking
  for.
• How many times have your parents warned you to
  be careful?
• 4) After indefinite pronouns everybody,
  nothing, somewhere, etc., the verb or auxiliary
  are used in singular form
• Everybody was ready for the exam.
• Does someone know the answer?

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Skills 24-26 Parallel Structure

• Parallel Structure means to make the language as
  even and balanced as possible.
• Example
• (not balanced wrong) I like to sing and
  dancing.
• (balanced, correct) I like to sing and dance.
• or
• I like singing and dancing.

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• 1) Parallel Structure with coordinate
  conjuctions and, but, and or.
• They are not interested in what you say or what
  you do.
• 
  clause clause
• You can decide whether to go hiking or
  kayaking
• gerund
  gerund
• I like to go home early, but my friends prefer
  to stay late.
• Independent clause
  Independent clause
• 2) With paired Conjuctions
• bothand I know both where you went and what
  you did.
• eitheror The report you are looking for could
  be either in the file or on the desk.
• neithernor The tickets are neither in my
  pocket nor in my purse.
• Not only. but also
• He is not only an excellent student but also a
  great athlete.

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• Parallel structures with comparisons
• more..than less.than -er.. than
• as.as the same as similar to
• My school is farther than yours.
• To be rich is better than not to be.
• What is spoken is more easily understood than
  what is written.
• Their car is as big as yours.
• This book costs about the same as the other
  book.
• The work that I did is similiar to yours.
• English is less difficult than Spanish.
• Some helpful hints on how to revise sentences for
  parallel structure
• 1) Figure out what parts of the sentence are
  being compared.
• 2) Decide whether they are parallel, i.e.
  arranged or constructed in the same way.
• 3) If they are not, make them parallel by making
  the grammatical construction the same in each
  part.
• Source http//www.evergreen.edu/writingcenter/h
  andouts/grammar/parallel.pdf

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Skill 27-29 Form Comparatives and Superlatives
Correctly

• Comparative We compare two persons or things.
• 1) Add er to one syllable words harder, darker,
  faster.
• 2) Double the consonant and add er to one
  syllable words with vc bigger, hotter.
• 3) Change y to i and add er to words with
  two syllables that end in y happier, easier.
• 4) Use more/less before words with two or more
  syllables more beautiful, more intelligent.
• 5) Add than after the comparative if you specify
  the second person or object you are comparing
• Peter is taller than Joe.

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• Superlative We compare more than two persons or
  things. (add the before the adjective)
• 1) Add est to one syllable words the hardest,
  the darkest, the fastest.
• 2) Double the consonant and add est to one
  syllable words with vc the biggest, the
  hottest.
• 3) Change y to i and add est to words with
  two syllables that end in y the happiest, the
  easiest.
• 4) Use the most/least before words with two or
  more syllables the most beautiful, the most
  intelligent.
• 5) We can also use the words in, of and that
  after the superlative forms
• Youre the most beautiful girl in the world.
• Yourre the most beautiful of all the girls in
  the group.
• Youre the most beautiful girl that I have ever
  seen.

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• Use Comparatives and Superlatives Correctly.
• Wrong It is the better sports car that Ive
  seen.
• Right It is the best sports car that Ive seen.
• Use the Irregular er, -er Structure Correctly
  Two parrallel comparatives introduced by the
• The more you read, the more you learn.
• The harder you try, the more youll accomplish.
• Sometimes a verb is not necessary
• The greater the experience, the higher the
  salary.
• The rules to form the comparative of adverbs are
  similar to adjectives except with two syllable
  adverbs that end in y. The comparative is formed
  with more/less, the most/least more easily.
• The comparative of nouns is formed only adding
  more/less, the most/least more work, the most
  work.

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Skills 30-32 Problems with the Form of the Verb

• Base form No person, tense, or number.
• play work sing come
• Present form With tense, person and number.
• play(s) work(s) sing(s) come(s)
• Present participle Verb -ing. Use in prog.
  tenses.
• playing working singing coming
• Past form Used with the Simple Past
• played worked sang came
• Past Participle Used with Perfect tenses and
  Passive Voice.
• played worked sung come

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Always check what comes

• After any form of have have, has, had, having we
  should use the past participle form of the verb
• Peter has worked a lot this week.
• My parents have bought a new car.
• I had finished my homework by 10 p.m.
• Having finished my homework, I went out.
• You should have studied a little more.
• After any form of be am, is, are, was, were, be,
  been, being the verb can be in
• Present participle for progressive tenses
• I am playing. He is playing. I was playing.
• We were playing. I have been playing. I had been
  playing.
• Tip The subject does the action.

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• 2) Past participle for the passive voice
• I am checked by the doctor every year.
• The water is bought every day.
• The mail has been delivered on time.
• The movie will be filmed in Mexico.
• Tip The subject receives the action.
• After modals or modal like expressions use the
  base form of the verb can, could, shall, should,
  will, would, must, ought to, be able to, be
  supposed to, have to, had better.
• You can work with us.
• He should study a lot more.
• They must finish the project.
• I would help you, If I had time.

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SKILL 33 KNOW WHEN TO USE THE PAST WITH THE
PRESENT

• If you see a sentence with one verb in the past
  and one verb in the present, the sentence is
  probably incorrect because it doesnt make any
  sense
• I tell him the truth when he asked me the
  question.
• However, it is possible for a correct sentence to
• have both past and present together and
  be
• correct because the meaning is logical.
• I understand that you were angry

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SKILL 34 USE HAVE AND HAD CORRECTLY
TENSE FORM MEANING USE EXAMPLE
Present perfect Have Past Participle Past up to now Not with a past tense Sue has lived in L.A. for 10 years.
Past perfect Had Past Participle Before past up to past Not with a present tense Sue had lived in L.A. for 10 years when she moved to San Diego
Except when the time expression since is part
of the sentence, see skill 35.
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SKILL 35 USE THE CORRECT TENSE WITH TIME
EXPRESSIONS
PAST PERFECT SIMPLE PAST PRESENT PERFECT
Adverb clause simple past tense when, before, until, since, etc. in 1990, ago, last year, yesterday, since 1990, for already, lately, just, yet, recently, so far, many times, ever, never, still
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SKILL 36 USE THE CORRECT TENSE WITH WILL AND
WOULD
VERB MEANING USE EXAMPLE
Will After the present Do not use with past I think that I will leave tomorrow
Would After the past Do not use with present He knew that she would come
NOTE When would is used to make polite
requests, it is used with the present tense I
would like to have a cup of coffee please.
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SKILL 37- 38 USE THE CORRECT FORM OF THE PASSIVE

• Active Voice The subject does the action.
• The man bought the books.
• Subject Verb Object
• Passive Voice The subject receives the action
• The books were bought by the man.
• Subject verb Agent
• The passive voice is formed by
• Be (takes the tense) Verb in past participle
• Present am/is/are bought
• Pres.Prog. am/is/are being bought
• Pres.Perf. have/has been bought
• Past. was/were bought
• Past Prog. was/were being bought
• Past Perf. had been bought
• Future will be bought
• Future Perf. will have been bought

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SKILL 39 USE THE CORRECT SINGULAR OR PLURAL NOUN
A singular noun is used where a plural noun is
needed. On the table there were many dish. A
plural noun is used where a singular noun is
needed. The lab assistant finished every tests.
KEY WORDS FOR SINGULAR AND PLURAL NOUNS KEY WORDS FOR SINGULAR AND PLURAL NOUNS
For singular nouns Each every single one a
For plural nouns Both two many several various
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Skill 40 Distinguish countable and uncountable
nouns
Some common mistakes He has seen much foreign
films. He didnt have many fun at the
movies. It should be He has seen many foreign
films. He didnt have much fun at the movies.
Key words for countable and uncountable nouns
For countable nouns many number few fewer
For uncountable nouns much amount little less
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Skill 41 Recognize Irregular Plurals of Nouns
Many nouns in English have irregular plurals the
irregular forms that are the most problematic are
plural forms that do not end in S. Different
Criteria was used to evaluate the performers In
this example the plural criteria looks singular
because it does not end in S. However, criteria
is a plural noun, so the singular verb was used
is incorrect. The verb should be in the plural
form were used.
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IRREGULAR PLURALS IRREGULAR PLURALS
Vowel Change Man / Men Foot / Feet Goose / Geese Woman / Women Tooth / Teeth Mouse / Mice
Add EN Child / Children Ox / Oxen
Same as Singular Deer / Deer Salmon / Salmon Trout / Trout Fish / Fish Sheep / Sheep
-IS ? -ES Analysis / Analyses Diagnosis / Diagnoses Synthesis/Syntheses Axis / Axes Hypothesis / Hypotheses Thesis / Theses Crisis / Crises Parenthesis / Parentheses
Ends in A Bacterium / Bacteria Datum / Data Criterion / Criteria Curriculum / Curricula Phenomenon / Phenomena
-US ? -I Alumnus / Alumni Fungus / Fungi Stimulus / Stimuli Bacillus / Bacilli Nucleus / Nuclei Syllabus / Syllabi Cactus / Cacti Radius / Radii
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Skill 42 Distinguish The Person From The Thing
Nouns in English can refer to persons or things
sometimes in the written expression the person is
used in place of the thing, or the thing is used
in place of the person. Ralph Nader is an
authorization in the field of consumer affairs
There are many job oppotunities in
accountant In the first example, autorization
is incorrect because authorization is a thing and
Ralph Nader is a person it should be
authority. In the second example, accountant is
incorrect because accountant is a person it
should be accounting.
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Skill 43 DISTINGUISH SUBJECT AND OBJECT PRONOUNS
A subject pronoun is used as the subject of the
verb An object pronoun can be used as the object
of a verb or the object of a preposition
SUBJECT OBJECT
I You He She It We They Me You Him Her It Us Them
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SKILL 44 DISTINGUISH POSSESIVE ADJECTIVES AND
PRONOUNS

• Possessive adjectives and pronouns both show who
  or what owns a noun.
• Adjectives and possessive pronouns do not have
  the same function.
• A possessive adjective describes a noun, it must
  be accompanied by a noun
• A possessive pronoun takes the place of a noun,
  it cant be accompanied by a noun
• They lent me their book.
• They lent me theirs.

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The following chart outlines the possessives and
their uses
POSSESSIVE ADJECTIVES POSSESSIVE PRONOUNS
My Your His Her Its Our Their Mine Yours His Hers - Ours Theirs
Must be accompanied by noun Cannot be accompanied by a noun
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Skill 45 CHECK PRONOUN REFERENCE FOR AGREEMENT

• After we check that the subject and object
  pronouns and the
• possessives are used correctly, we should also
  check each of
• these pronouns and possessives for agreement.
• The boy will cause trouble if you let him.
• Everyone must give his/her name.
• PRONOUN AGREEMENT
• Be sure that every pronoun and possessive agrees
  with the noun it refers to.
• You generally check back in the sentence for
  agreement
• In informal speaking we can use their/them

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SKILL 46 USE BASIC ADJECTIVES AND ADVERBS
CORRECTLY Adjectives are used in place of
adverbs, or adverbs are used in place of
adjectives. Adjectives and adverbs have very
different uses. Adjectives have only one job
they describe nouns or pronouns. Adverbs describe
verbs, adjectives, or other adverbs. She is a
beautiful woman. She is beautiful.
ADJ. NOUN PRO. ADJ. She sings
beautifully. VERB
ADV. She is a beautifully dressed woman.
ADV. ADJ.
NOUN She is a truly beautifully dressed woman.
ADV. ADV. ADJ. NOUN
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Skill 47 Use Adjectives after Linking Verbs

• Generally an adverb rather than an adjective will
  come directly
• after a verb because the adverb is describing the
  verb.
• She spoke nicely.
• VERB ADV.
• This adverb (nicely) describes the verb spoke.
• You must be careful if the verb is a linking
  verb. A linking verb
• is followed by an adjective rather than an
  adverb. A linking verb is
• a non-action (describes a state) verb that needs
  a complement.
• Examples She looks nice.
• SUB. ADJ.
• LINKING VERBS appear feel
  seem be look smell become
  prove taste

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SKILL 48. POSITION ADJECTIVES AND ADVERBS
CORRECTLY
THE POSITION OF ADJECTIVES AND ADVERBS
A one-word adjective comes before the noun it
describes, it does not come directly after. An
adverb can appear in many positions. It cannot be
used between a verb and its object.
ADJECTIVES ADVERBS
Adjectives and adverbs can appear in incorrect
positions in the Written Expression Section. The
two common errors are - The position of
adjectives with the nouns they describe. - The
position of adverbs with objects. In English it
is correct to place a one-word adjective in front
of the noun it describes. The information
important is on the first page. Here the
adjective important should come before the noun
information, this is because important describes
information. The important information is on
the first page.
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• You should be aware of the position of adverbs
  with objects of verbs.
• when a verb has an object, an adverb describing
  the verb should not come
• between the verb and its object.
• He has taken recently an English course.
• Verb Adv. Object
• There are many possible corrections for this
  sentence.
• Recently he has taken an English course
• He has recently taken an English course
• He has taken an English course recently.

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SKILL 49 Do not confuse ly Adjectives with
Adverbs ending in ly


-LY ADJECTIVES
costly likely daily quarterly northerly early liv
ely hourly weekly easterly friendly lonely monthl
y yearly southerly kindly manly nightly lovely we
sterly
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SKILL 50 USE PREDICATE ADJECTIVES AFTER LINKING
VERBS

• The snake on the rock was alive. CORRECT
• The alive snake was lying on the rock.
  INCORRECT
• In the first example, the predicate adjective
  alive is used correctly after the liking verb was
  to describe the subject snake. In the second
  example, the predicate adjective alive is used
  incorrectly in front of the noun snake. In this
  position, the adjective live should be used.

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SKILL 50 USE PREDICATE ADJECTIVES CORRECTLY

Predicate adjectives Forms used in front of noun Predicate adjectives Forms used in front of noun
alike like, similar
alive live, living
alone lone
afraid frightened
asleep sleeping
A predicate adjective appears after a linking verb such as be. It cannot appear directly in front of the noun that it describes. A predicate adjective appears after a linking verb such as be. It cannot appear directly in front of the noun that it describes.
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SKILL 51 USE ED AND -ING ADJECTIVES CORRECTLY

• The woman cleans the car.
• VERB
• The cleaning woman worked on the car.
• ADJECTIVE
  
• The woman put the cleaned car back in the
  garage.
• 
  ADJECTIVE
• In the first example, cleans is the verb of the
  sentence. In the second example, cleaning is a
  verbal adjective describing woman. In the third
  example, cleaned is a verbal adjective describing
  car.
• The cleaning car is not correct because a car
  cannot do the action of cleaning. (active)
• The cleaned woman is not correct because a
  woman cannot receive the action of the verb
  clean. (passive)

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SKILL 51 USE ED AND -ING ADJECTIVES CORRECTLY
-ED AND -ING ADJECTIVES -ED AND -ING ADJECTIVES -ED AND -ING ADJECTIVES -ED AND -ING ADJECTIVES
TYPE MEANING USE EXAMPLE
-ING Active It does the action of the verb. the happily playing children. (The children play.)
-ED Passive It receives the action of the verb. the frequently played record (Someone plays the record.)
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Skills 52-54 PROBLEMS WITH ARTICLES
Articles Countable Singular Nouns Contable Plural Nouns Uncontable Nouns
Indefinite (General) a dollar an apple ---- dollars ---- apples ----money ----juice
Definite (Specific) the dollar the apple the dollars the apples the money the juice
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• SKILL 52 Use Articles with Singular
• Nouns
• A singular noun must have an article (a/an, the)
  or some other
• determiner such as my or each. A plural noun or
  an uncountable
• noun may or may not have an article.
• I have money. (Uncountable--- no article needed)
• I have books. (Countable plural--- no article
  needed)
• I have a book. (Countable singular--- article
  needed)

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SKILL 53 Distinguish A/An

A A is used in front of a singular noun with a consonant sound.
AN AN is used in front of a singular noun with a vowel sound.
Be careful of words beginning with letters such as u, o, e, x or h. They may begin with either a vowel or a consonant sound. Be careful of words beginning with letters such as u, o, e, x or h. They may begin with either a vowel or a consonant sound.
A university A hand A one- way street A euphemism A xerox machine
An unhappy man An hour An omen An event An x-ray machine
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Skill 54 Make Articles agree with Nouns

• The definite article the is for both singular
  and plural nouns
• The indefinite article a/an is used only with
  singular nouns.
• One very common agreement error is to use the
  singular indefinite a/an with a plural noun.
• He saw a new movies. (incorrect)
• He saw a new movie. (singular)
• He saw new movies (plural)

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Skill 55 Distinguish Specific and General Ideas

• With countable singular nouns, it is possible to
  use either the definite or the indefinite
  article. BUT THEY HAVE DIFFERENT MEANINGS.
• A or An (versus) THE
• A or An
• Use it when there are many, and you dont know
  which one it is.
• Use it when there are many, and you dont care
  which one it is.
• Tom will bring a book tomorow. (any book)

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• THE
• Use it when it is the only one.
• Use it when there are many, and you and your
  listener know which one it is.
• Tom will bring the book tomorow. (a specific
  book.)

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Skills 56-57 Problems with Prepositions
Prepositions
Literal way
Idiomatic way
Means exactly what you expect
Its very far from the real meaning
Example
The boy ran up the mountain. v/s
I call up my friend.
Literal / Idiomatic meaning
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Prepositions

• Prepositions are not only used to show time,
  place, and agent, but are also used in
  combination with verbs, adjectives, nouns, and in
  many common set expressions. We cannot list all
  prepositions, but some important groups are
• Verb Preposition
• depend on lead to
• Adjective/Participle Preposition
• surprised at famous for
• Noun Preposition
• example of possibility of
• Other Combinations with Prepositions
• as a result of in addition to
• Prepositions of Time and Place
• on May 16 in Washington
• Prepositions in Common Expressions
• at present in general

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• VERB PREPOSITION
• account for contribute to insist on
  plan on
• believe in depend on lead to
  rely on
• belong to detach from obtain from result in
• confined to fight for overcome by
  withdraw from
• ADJECTIVE/PARTICIPLE PREPOSITION
• accustomed to different from necessary
  for responsible for
• afraid of expert at opossed
  to successful in
• based on free from possible
  for surprised at
• compared to famous for related
  to typical of
• NOUN PREPOSITION
• cause of equivalent of influence
  on result of
• cost of evidence of need for
  use of
• danger of example of possibility
  of solution to
• effect on increase in reason
  for supply of

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• OTHER COMBINATIONS WITH PREPOSITIONS
• according to in the process of
• as a consequence of in view of
• as a result of on account of
• because of on behalf of
• by means of on the basis of
• in addition to prior to
• in spite of with the exception of
• in terms of with the purpose of
• PREPOSITIONS IN COMMON EXPRESSIONS
• at times by land/sea/air
• at present by far
• at first/last by chance
• at the moment by accident
• by day/night
• in common on fire
• in general on the other hand
• in existence on the whole
• in the future/past on purpose

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• PREPOSITIONS OF TIME AND PLACE
• Prepositions of Time
• at time of day (at 8 a.m.)
• noon, night midnight
• in parts of the day (in the
  morning/evening/afternoon)
• month (in July)
• season (in the fall)
• year (in 1980)
• decade (in the 1980s)
• century (in the nineteenth century)
• on days of the week (on Monday)
• dates (on March 20)
• for/since duration of time (for three
  days)
• point in time (since March 20)
• from . . . to from beginning time . . . to
  ending (from 8 a.m. to 5 p.m.)

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• PREPOSITIONS OF TIME AND PLACE
• Prepositions of Place
• at address (at 200 Main Street)
• on street/road/avenue (on Kings Road)
• in building (in the drugstore)
• city (in Los Angeles)
• state (in California)
• country (in Japan)
• continent (in Africa)
• from . . . to from beginning point . . . to
  ending point (from Alaska to California)

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Skill 56-57 Problems with Prepositions

• Sometimes an incorrect preposition is given in a
  sentence in the Written Expression section of the
  TOEFL test.
• The game was called on because of the rain.
• It must be called off (canceled)
• I knew I could count in you to do a good job.
• It must be count on someone
• Sometimes a necessary preposition has been
  omitted from a sentence in the Written Expression
  section of the TOEFL test.
• Can you wait me after the game.
• It should be wait for me.
• I plan attending the meeting.
• It should be plan on attending.

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Skill 58 Distinguish Make and Do

• Make and Do can be confused in English because
  their meanings are so similar.
• Make often has the idea of creating or
  constructing. The following expressions show some
  of the possible uses of make
• She likes to make her own clothes.
• Would you like to make a cake for dessert?
• If you make a mistake, you should correct it.
• He was unable to make a response to the threat.

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• Do often has the idea of completing or
  performing. The following expressions show some
  of the possible uses of do
• This morning she did all the dishes.
• The students are doing assignments.
• The janitors did the work they were assigned.
• You can do your laundry at the laundromat.
• Many uses of make and do are idiomatic and
  therefore
• difficult to classify.
• http//www.epcc.edu/ftp/Homes/tracyvm/dovsmake.htm
  l

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Skill 59 Distinguish like, alike, unlike, and
dislike

• Like, alike, unlike and dislike sometimes are
  confused because they look so similar but they
  have many different uses.
• 1) Like and alike
• John and Tom are alike.
• John and Tom worked in a like manner.
• As you see like and alike are adjectives that
  have similar meaning.
• Alike is a predicate adjective, so we can only
  use it after a linking verb.
• Like is used immediately before a noun so it is
  an adjective form.

86

• 2) Like and unlike
• Jonh is like Tom.
• John is unlike Tom.
• Here both words have opposite meanings, they are
  working as prepositions so they must be followed
  by objects.
• The prepositions like and unlike can also be used
  at the beginning of a sentence.
• 3) Like and dislike
• John and Tom like the course.
• John and Tom dislike the course.
• Here both words are written as verbs, so they are
  used with subjects.

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SKILL 60 DINTINGUISH OTHER, ANOTHER, AND OTHERS

• To decide how to use other, another or others, we
  must consider three things
• 1.- If it is singular or plural.
• 2.- If it is definite (the) or indefinite (a).
• 3.- If it is an adjective ( it appears with a
  noun) or if it is a pronoun (it appears by
  itself).

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SINGULAR PLURAL
INDEFINITE I have another book. I have another. I have other books. I have others.
DEFINITE I have the other book. I have the other. I have the other books. I have the others.