Mary Shelley

1
Mary Shelley

• Frankenstein

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Contents

• - Mary Shelleys biography
• - Frankenstein

3
Mary Shelleys biography

• Mary Wollstonecraft Shelley, née Mary
  Wollstonecraft Godwin, was the only daughter of
  William Godwin and Mary Wollstonecraft. Their
  high expectations of her future are, perhaps,
  indicated by their blessing her upon her birth
  with both their names. She was born on 30 August
  1797 in London. The labor was not difficult, but
  complications developed with the afterbirth.
  Despite expert attention, her mother sickened
  from placental infection and died eleven days
  after her birth, on 10 September. Mary was
  brought up with her elder sister Fanny Godwin,
  the daughter of Mary Wollstonecraft and her
  American lover Gilbert Imlay, who was adopted by
  Godwin and reared as his own child until the age
  of eleven when he disclosed her parentage to her.
  The family complications were considerably
  advanced in 1801 with Godwin's remarriage to his
  neighbour, the widowed Mary Jane Clairmont, which
  brought two further children, Charles and Claire
  Clairmont, into the household. A fifth sibling
  was added in 1803 with the birth of William
  Godwin, Jr.
• The five children were instructed
  principally at home. Following Godwin's own
  precepts, there were little distinction made in
  their educations on the basis of sex, so Mary
  Godwin had an education of considerable breadth,
  one that few girls in her age could equal. Apart
  from formal instruction, the children were
  exposed almost daily to Godwin's extensive
  acquaintance among the London intelligentsia,
  ranging from the poet and philosopher Samuel
  Taylor Coleridge, whom Mary heard recite "The
  Rime of the Ancient Mariner" in Godwin's living
  room, to scientists like Humphry Davy and her
  father's bosom friend William Nicholson, the two
  foremost experimenters with galvanic electricity
  in the early years of the nineteenth century.
  These figures especially would later have a
  noticeable impact on the writing of Frankenstein.
  As heady as was this intellectual climate, there
  was a practical side to Mary's education in the
  Godwin-Clairmont household as well, for its
  income derived mainly from the proceeds of the
  Juvenile Library, their publishing venture
  specializing in books of instruction for younger
  readers. At the age of ten Mary had her first
  experience with publication, when the Juvenile
  Library printed her witty poem, Mounseer
  Nongtongpaw or, The Discoveries of John Bull in
  a Trip to Paris. By 1812 it was in a fourth
  edition.

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• That same year, at the age of fourteen, Mary
  was exposed to yet another broadening influence,
  when, in order to distance her from the
  step-mother she resented and disliked, Godwin
  sent her on an extended visit to the Baxter
  family in Dundee, Scotland. There she resided
  from June to November of 1812 and, again, from
  June 1813 to March of 1814, developing a strong
  attachment to the Baxter's adolescent daughter
  Isabel, who became her first close friend.
• Shortly after her return to the family home,
  she became reacquainted with her father's
  youthful admirer, Percy Bysshe Shelley, whom she
  had first met in the company of his wife Harriet
  in late 1812. Now, he became a frequent visitor
  to the Godwin household, and the two of them fell
  in love. In July, with Mary still in her
  sixteenth year, the couple eloped to the
  continent accompanied by Mary's step-sister
  Claire.
• It is perhaps to be expected that this
  couple, immersed as they were in the world of
  books, would turn the journal of their elopement
  into a travel book, which Mary wrote up and
  published as History of a Six Weeks' Tour in
  1817, while her first novel was being prepared
  for the press. The conjunction of the works
  suggests a self-assured young writer assuming a
  professional identity. The young woman who
  returned in September of 1814 from her two-month
  tour, however, was not yet ready for such a role.
  The couple was penniless, and Shelley was forced
  to hide from creditors Godwin, feeling injured
  by his daughter, would not even see her lover
  and Mary, unmarried and barely seventeen, was
  pregnant. To aggravate this sense of a sudden and
  severe constriction of opportunity, Mary's friend
  Isabel Baxter was forced by her family to
  terminate their acquaintance. Years later, upon
  her return to England from Italy as Shelley's
  widow, Mary found herself regularly refused the
  notice of respectable people who would never
  forgive her, whatever her subsequent career, for
  so blatant a transgression of proper social
  decorum.

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• Over the next two years Shelley fashioned a
  financial stability for them (and for William
  Godwin, even though he would still not speak to
  him), and the couple developed a circle of
  friends. Mary was twice pregnant, losing her
  first child, a daughter, after three weeks, but
  giving birth to a son, named after her father, in
  January 1816. In retrospect, she would idealize
  these years spent near Windsor, where she sets
  the early chapters of her third novel, The Last
  Man (1826). Still, she was as yet unmarried and
  had yet to accomplish anything on her own. The
  impetus to a new chapter in her life was provided
  inadvertently by her step-sister. Claire, who
  tended to compete with Mary, in a bizarre but
  successful scheme set out to secure her own
  poet-lover, and she hit on the chief prize, Lord
  Byron, whose separation proceedings from his wife
  formed the prime scandal of the 1815-16 winter.
  By the spring Byron had set off for exile on the
  continent, and Claire found herself pregnant.

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• Claire, needing to establish the paternity
  of the expected child, confided in Mary, who, in
  turn, convinced Shelley of the importance of this
  claim. So came about the famous summer of 1816 on
  the shore of Lake Geneva. Mary has left her own
  account of this period in the Introduction she
  supplied to the 1831 edition of Frankenstein.
  What she does not quite get around to saying in
  that dignified memoir is that Claire did, indeed,
  establish Byron's care for his future child,
  though with the unexpected and rather unpleasant
  proviso that he never again see the mother that
  Shelley made the acquaintance of, and then
  developed a particularly intense intellectual
  friendship with, the foremost poet of the age
  and that, amidst all these heady events and with
  almost no one but herself noticing, she quietly
  became a writer and set out on her remarkable
  career.
• Upon her return to England in September of
  1816, Mary quickly began to develop the novel she
  had started in the summer. Its progress was twice
  interrupted by family catastrophe, first the
  suicide of her half-sister Fanny in October, then
  the discovery in December of the body of Harriet
  Shelley, who, being with child, had herself
  committed suicide the month before. Two weeks
  after they were notified of Harriet's suicide, on
  30 December 1816, Mary Godwin and Percy Bysshe
  Shelley were married.
• This event brought about an immediate
  reconciliation with Godwin, but was attended as
  well by a lawsuit in the Court of Chancery
  brought by Harriet's family with the intention of
  depriving the father of custody of his two
  children from the marriage. The success of this
  suit convinced Shelley and Mary that they would
  suffer continual persecution if they remained in
  England. On the first day of 1818 Frankenstein
  was published anonymously, followed shortly after
  by Shelley's book-length narrative poem, The
  Revolt of Islam. On 12 March Mary and Shelley,
  with their two children Clara and William, along
  with Claire and her daughter Allegra, departed
  from England to make a new home in Italy.
• The four years they spent in Italy saw the
  establishment of Percy Bysshe Shelley as one of
  the foremost poets in the English language. It
  likewise furthered the career of Mary Shelley as
  "The Author of Frankenstein," the rubric under
  which she continued her anonymous publication
  with a second novel immersed in medieval Italian
  history, Valperga or, The Life and Adventures of
  Castruccio, Prince of Lucca (1823). After Percy
  Bysshe Shelley's death by drowning in 1822, Mary
  Shelley found herself without sufficient
  financial means to remain in Italy and, with some
  reluctance, returned to England to begin a second
  existence there in the fall of 1823.
• .

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• She never equalled the popular success of
  Frankenstein, but she published a number of other
  novels after Valperga The Last Man (1826), The
  Fortunes of Perkin Warbeck (1830), Lodore (1835),
  and Falkner (1837). In addition to her novels,
  she produced a large volume of miscellaneous
  prose short stories, biographies, and travel
  writings, including the retrospective Rambles in
  Italy and Germany of 1844. She likewise
  supervised the publication of her husband's
  Posthumous Poems, which appeared in 1824, his
  Poetical Works (1839), and his prose (1839 and
  1840). Her only surviving child was Percy
  Florence Shelley, who was born in 1819 and who
  acceded to the baronetcy upon the death of
  Shelley's father, Sir Timothy, in 1844. Mary
  Shelley herself died in her home in Chester
  Square, London, on 1 February 1851.

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Frankenstein

• - History of the writing of the novel
• - Literary sources of Frankenstein
• - Main characters

9
History of the writing of the novel

• Mary Shelley spent the greater part of the
  summer of 1816, when she was nineteen, at the
  Chapuis in Geneva, Switzerland. The entourage
  included her stepsister, Claire Clairmont,
  Shelley, Lord Byron, and John Polidori, Byron's
  physician. Mary considered the area to be sacred
  to enlightenment. The weather went from being
  beautiful and radiant to melodramatically
  tempestuous. Torrential rains and incredible
  lightning storms plagued the area, similar to the
  summer that Mary was born . This incredible
  meteorological change was due to the eruption of
  the volcano, Tambora, in Indonesia. The weather,
  as well as the company and the Genevan district,
  contributed to the genesis of Frankenstein.
• All contributing events that summer
  intensified on the night of June 16th. Mary and
  Percy could not return to Chapuis, due to an
  incredible storm, and spent the night at the
  Villa Diodati with Byron and Polidori. The group
  read aloud a collection of German ghost stories,
  The Fantasmagoriana. In one of the stories, a
  group of travelers relate to one another
  supernatural experiences that they had
  experienced. This inspired Byron to challenge the
  group to write a ghost story.
• Shelley wrote an forgettable story, Byron
  wrote a story fragment, and Polidori began the
  "The Vampyre", the first modern vampire tale.
  Unfortunately, Mary was uninspired and did not
  start writing anything. The following evening the
  group continued their late night activities and
  at midnight Byron recited the poem, Christabel by
  Samuel T. Coleridge. Percy became overwrought
  during the reading and perceived Mary as the
  villainess of the poem. He ran out of the room
  and apparently created quite a scene. This
  incident undoubtedly affected Mary, leading to
  feelings of guilt that contributed to the story
  ideas she later developed. For the next couple of
  days Mary was unable to begin her story. The
  poets dropped theirs but Mary persisted in her
  creative endeavour. She felt that her ambitions
  and her value were at stake and attempted to turn
  the pressure and frustration into creative
  energy. On June 22nd, Byron and Shelley were
  scheduled to take a boat trip around the lake.

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• The night before their departure the group
  discussed a subject from de Stael's De
  l'Allemagne "whether the principle of life could
  be discovered and whether scientists could
  galvanize a corpse of manufactured humanoid".
  When Mary went to bed, she had a "waking"
  nightmare I saw the pale student of unhallowed
  arts kneeling beside the thing he had put
  together. I saw the hideous phantasm of a man
  stretched out, then, on the working of some
  powerful engine, show signs of life...His success
  would terrify the artist he would rush
  away...hope that...this thing...would subside
  into dead matter...he opens his eyes behold the
  horrid thing stands at his bedside, opening his
  curtains...The next morning Mary realized she had
  found her story and began writing the lines that
  open Chapter IV of Frankenstein - "It was on a
  dreary night in November"- She completed the
  novel in May of 1817 and is was published January
  1, 1818.

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Literary sources of Frankenstein

• Frankenstein is considered to be the
  greatest Gothic Romantic Novel. It is also
  generally thought of as the first science fiction
  novel. The idea for the novel arose in the summer
  of 1816 when Mary Shelley was staying at Lord
  Byron's villa in Geneva Switzerland. Not only did
  Mary incorporate experiences from that summer
  into her novel, she also utilized the sources
  that she had been reading and studying. Two in
  particular were the Metamorphoses by Ovid and
  Paradise Lost by Milton.
• It is believed that Mary studied Ovid in
  April and May of 1815. The major element that
  Ovid supplied to the theme of Frankenstein, was
  his presentation of the Prometheus legend. This
  is acknowledged in the subtitle Frankenstein, Or
  the Modern Prometheus.
• The second important literary influence was
  Paradise Lost by Milton. The influence of
  Milton's Paradise Lost can be seen directly from
  the epigraph of the 1818 edition of Frankenstein.
  
• "Did I request thee, Maker from my clay to
  mould me man? Did I solicit thee, from darkness
  to promote me?"
• The spirit of Paradise Lost permeates
  Frankenstein throughout the novel. On page 240
  the monster says
• "The fallen angel becomes a malignant
  devil. Yet even that enemy of God and man had
  friends and associates in his desolation I am
  alone"
• Three parallel themes from the two works
  arise from these quotes
• - the moulding of a living being from clay
  
• - the growth of malice and the desire for
  revenge
• - the isolation of the hostile being and
  the consequent increase of his hostility
• It is easy to establish Mary Shelley's
  knowledge of Paradise Lost. The work was admired
  in the Godwin household. Mary and Percy read it
  in 1815 and again in November 1816. Her journal
  states that Shelley read it aloud while she was
  writing Frankenstein.

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• She even incorporated Paradise Lost into the
  novel by having it be one of the three works that
  the monster studied. The monster found a
  correlation between his condition and and an
  aspect of the novel and stated
• "Like Adam, I was apparently united by no
  link to any other human being...I was wretched,
  helpless and alone. Many times I considered Satan
  as the fitter emblem of my condition (pg.
  135-136)
• Other echoes of Paradise Lost are as
  follows
• Frankenstein hopes to be the source of a new
  species, but ironically his creature evolves into
  a self-acknowleged Satan who swears eternal
  revenge and war upon his creator and all the
  human race. The monster reflects that hell is an
  internal condition which is produced and
  increased through loneliness. His only salvation
  is the creation of a mate, his Eve.
• In the later part of the book, Frankenstein
  refers to the monster in terms used in Paradise
  Lost the fiend, the demon, the devil, and
  adversary. Both master and creature are torn by
  their internal conflicts from misapplied
  knowledge and their sense of isolation.

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Main characters

• Victor Frankenstein
• As a young child, it could be said that
  Victor Frankenstein is indulged and spoilt by his
  parents, and later on by his adopted sister,
  Elizabeth and his friend, Henry Clerval. In the
  first chapter, as Frankenstein is recounting his
  story to the mariner, Walton, we learn that he
  was born into a wealthy family from Geneva, and
  lived in Italy for the first part of his life.
  His mother was the daughter of his fathers
  friend, and, therefore much younger than he. We
  are told that she was caring and dutiful, that
  she, "possessed a mind of an uncommon mould"
  (page 32), and had nursed and kept her own father
  during his illness until his death.
  Frankensteins parents are very much in love, and
  he was an only child for the first five years.
  Victors first recollections are of his,
  "mothers tender caresses", and his, "fathers
  smile of benevolent pleasure" (page 33). They
  regard him as being, "bestowed on them by
  heaven", and recognise that his future, "was in
  their hands to direct to happiness or misery". He
  also tells Walton that his mother and father felt
  that they, "owed" something to him because they
  had given him life.
• At the age of seven, having moved to Geneva
  with his family, he meets Henry Clerval with whom
  he becomes great friends, although it is
  interesting to note that he chooses not to mix
  with the other local children. At the beginning
  of chapter two, Victor describes his childhood
  thus
• No human being could have passed a happier
  childhood than myself. My parents were possessed
  by the very spirit of kindness and indulgence. We
  felt that they were not the tyrants to rule our
  lot according to their caprice, but the agents
  and creators of all the many delights which we
  enjoyed. (page 37) But even though he was growing
  up in what could be perceived as an idyllic
  family, he comments to Walton that, "My temper
  was sometimes violent and my passions vehement"
  (page 37). He was also prone to, "become sullen"
  (page 37), but Elizabeth seems always to have
  been ready to soothe and comfort him, to,
  "subdue", him, "to a semblance of her own
  gentleness." (page 37) , and whilst Clerval is
  enthusiastically learning all he could about
  life, and the world around him, Victor is
  interested only in "the physical secrets of the
  world." .

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• We can see that Victor is very much left to
  his own devices without much direction from his
  parents, when he retells the events when, at the
  age of thirteen he found a book by Cornelius
  Agrippa which sparked his interest in alchemy.
  Even he recognises that his father should have
  given him more guidance when he tells how his
  father, "looked carelessly at the title page"
  (page 38), and merely dismissed the work as, "sad
  trash." (page 38) . He states that, if instead,
  his father had taken the time to explain that
  alchemy had been disproved, then, "It is even
  possible that the train of my ideas would never
  have received the fatal impulse that led to my
  ruin." (page 38-39). It seems that his father is
  not interested enough in what his son is
  studying, and takes little notice of what he is
  doing. Frankenstein says of himself, "I was to a
  great degree, self taught" (page 39), and that,
• My father was not scientific, and I was
  left to struggle with a childs blindness added
  to a students thirst for knowledge. (page 39).
• So without any supervision, he engrosses
  himself in his studies, concentrating on the more
  altruistic side of alchemy - the secret of
  eternal life. Frankensteins first experience of
  real sadness comes when he is seventeen and his
  mother dies having contracted scarlet fever
  whilst nursing Elizabeth back to health. We are
  told that, "her countenance expressed affection
  even in death."., and he describes death as,
  "that most irrepairable evil". This event
  appears to make him even more determined to find
  a cure for this "evil". There is now only
  Elizabeth to give a feminine balance to his life,
  but he leaves for university with Clerval, having
  agreed to his mothers deathbed wish that he and
  Elizabeth would one day marry.
• At university in Ingolstadt he is persuaded
  that alchemy has been superseded by natural
  philosophy, and his aptitude for science
  impresses both students and tutors alike.
  However, having decided to try and create life by
  scientific methods, he isolates himself from any
  friendly support and advice he may have received
  from Clerval, and the professional opinions of
  his tutors. He is, of course, away from his
  family, and so works alone.

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• Shelley could be seen to be saying through
  Frankensteins tale, that parents love alone is
  not enough for a childs healthy development.
  Unless love is given together with discipline and
  guidance, the child is unable to develop into a
  well rounded adult who can be assimilated into
  the wider society, and have a balanced view of
  themselves and the world around them. Not only
  does Victor appear to be selfish and too
  introspective, he seems never to mature and
  develop self discipline, as his obsessional
  nature seems to show. The cosseting he has
  received as a child has led him to grow into
  adulthood with no true sense of responsibility
  for his actions. This is highlighted when, having
  created the creature, on seeing the contrast
  between his dream and the reality of the,
  ""..miserable monster."(page 57), he flees from
  his apartment, and when, on returning, he
  realises that the creature has escaped, he
  remarks, "I clapped my hands for joy" (page 60).
  It is not until the desperate and unhappy
  creature has already murdered his young brother,
  William, and tells him his story, begging for a
  mate, that Frankenstein briefly feels the
  slightest responsibility for him. It is at this
  point in the novel that he thinks to himself,
• and did I not as his maker, owe him all the
  portion of happiness that it was in my power to
  bestow?
• Shelley seems also to be showing the reader
  that self-education is not always a good thing.
  Unless supervised, the autodidact is in danger of
  gaining knowledge in a very narrow field, for
  instance, Frankensteins learning seems to be
  solely focused on science, without any education
  in morals, the arts, or social skills which would
  have helped him to mature and be a more social
  and compassionate individual.

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• The Monster
• The creatures childhood is condensed
  into a matter of months. His first experience of
  Victor, his parent and maker is one of rejection,
  and this sets the pattern for his life. We are
  told that, on being born, the creature made his
  way to Frankensteins bedside,
• He held up the curtain of the bed and his
  eyes, if eyes they may be called, were fixed on
  me. His jaws opened, and he muttered some
  inarticulate sounds, while a grin wrinkled his
  cheeks. He might have spoken, but I did not hear
  one hand was stretched out, seemingly to detain
  me (page 57)
• In all probability, the creature was
  reaching out, as a small child does to their
  mother, but his ugly appearance only frightened
  Victor into running away.
• With no one to love him or care for him,
  the creature spends his first days in the forest
  near Ingolstadt. Through his narrative, we learn
  that, at first he was like an abandoned baby,
  alone, and in his own words
• I knew, and could distinguish nothing but
  feeling pain invade me on all sides, I sat down
  and wept. (page 99)
• At this point in his life, he has only a
  basic sensory awareness, and we are told,
• No distinct ideas occupied my mind all was
  confused. I felt light and hunger, and thirst,
  and darkness innumerable sounds rang in my ears,
  and on all sides various scents saluted me the
  only object that I could distinguish was the
  bright moon, and I fixed my eyes on that with
  pleasure. (page 100).
• Eventually he learns that drinking from the
  stream will quench his thirst, eating nuts and
  berries will sate his hunger, and he can be
  shaded by the trees. He has an instinctive
  appreciation for nature, and even tries to mimic
  the birdsong that give him so much pleasure, but
  the, "uncouth and inarticulate sounds" (page 100)
  that he utters, frighten him into silence. The
  creature discovers an abandoned fire and, just as
  a young unsupervised child would, he learns about
  its heat by putting his hand into it and feeling
  the pain of the burn. However, he also finds it
  can keep him warm, and that nuts and berries
  taste good when cooked in it. At this stage, he
  still has no idea or curiosity about his
  appearance, and is therefore surprised when his
  arrival at a shepherds hut causes the old man to
  run away in terror. His next encounter with
  humans is even more negative than the last, and
  he is pelted with stones when he enters a
  village. Again, he is puzzled by peoples
  reactions to him.

17

• This last experience teaches him to be
  cautious of interaction with humans, and he
  decides to take refuge in a hovel which is built
  onto the back of a forest hut, but not to make
  his presence there known to the inhabitants. The
  first thing he learns about people is their,
  "barbarity" (page 103). From his position in the
  hovel, through a crevice, he can observe the
  family who live in the hut. It is during this
  period in his life that most of his education
  takes place. He first appreciates the beauty of
  M. De Lacey, the old man, with his, "silver hair
  and benevolent countenance" (page 104), and that
  of Agatha, his daughter, who is described as a,
  "fair creature." With, "gentle manners" (page
  104). He sees the love and care that the family
  show towards each other, and watching them
  together, he also feels emotions which he has not
  experienced before. When Agatha is upset and her
  father comforts her, the creature recalls that
  he,
• felt sensations of a peculiar and
  overpowering nature they were a mixture of pain
  and pleasure, such as I had never before
  experienced, either from hunger or cold, warmth
  or food" (page 104)

18

• At this moment he has begun to develop more
  sophisticated emotions as he becomes aware of
  others, and feels compassion, sharing their joy
  and sorrow. His emotions are no longer purely
  based on his own basic needs and his senses. Just
  as a small child learns about their relationships
  with others, the creature also learns, although
  from a distance.
• The creature spends many months in the
  hovel, and learns to speak, partly by listening
  to the De Laceys, and then by listening to the
  French instruction that they give to Safie.
  Whereas, in the beginning his education had been,
  for the most part experiential, he is now able to
  follow these lessons. It is once he has learned
  to read, that that his thoughts and ideas about
  the world he has found himself in, start to form.
  He has found three books in the forest
  Plutarch's 'Lives', 'The Sorrows of Werter' by
  Goethe, and Milton's 'Paradise Lost'. The
  creature learns something different about life
  from each book. In 'Paradise Lost', he can see
  similarities between himself and Adam, and is
  introduced to the idea of God, the Christian
  myth, and good and evil. He realises that wealth
  and social standing, are most highly prized in
  society, from Plutarch's 'Lives', and in Goethe's
  work, he reads that suicide can be an option for
  a desperately unhappy person. In the same way
  that Frankenstein is self educated, the creature
  is also and, like his creator, he is learning in
  a vacuum, with no other influences to balance his
  views.
• The creature never manages to interact
  positively with others or find friendship, and we
  can see his self esteem sink lower and lower, the
  more he is rejected, and becomes lonelier and
  more alienated from society. It is at this that
  eventually changes him from a kind, affectionate,
  and reasonable being, to a bitter murderer. He
  tells Frankenstein,
• I am malicious because I am miserable. Am I
  not shunned and hated by all mankind? You, my
  creator, would tear me to pieces, and triumph
  remember that and tell me why I should pity man
  more than he pities me? You would not call it
  murder, if you could precipitate me into one of
  those ice-rifts, and destroy my frame, the work
  of your own hands. Shall I respect man when he
  condemns me? Let him live with me in an
  interchange of kindness and, instead of injury I
  would bestow every benefit upon him with tears of
  gratitude at his acceptance. (page 140).

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• It could be suggested that his education
  and intellect have betrayed him. They have served
  only to highlight his misery. His understanding
  of his predicament, and how he falls short of
  society's norms and aspirations, can only make
  him more wretched. Apart from hearing his voice
  when trying to sing, he no real self awareness
  until, like a perverse Narcissus, he sees his
  reflection in a pool, and becomes, "fully
  convinced that I was in reality the monster I am"
  (page 110). Now he can see himself as others see
  him. Through reading, his knowledge of man's
  capacity for evil gives him a more realistic view
  of society, and his place in it. Like Adam and
  Eve and their consequent banishment from the
  Garden of Eden after eating from the tree of
  knowledge , he has developed from a 'noble
  savage', as unselfconscious and close to nature
  as an animal, to acquiring knowledge and the loss
  of innocence that accompanies it. He has, in
  effect, been cast out like Adam and Eve before
  him.

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