GOVT 2305

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GOVT 2305

• Foreign Policy

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Here is another of our occasional forays into
public policy.In this case we will be looking
at foreign policy and determine how the various
governing and political actors impact out
relations with foreign countries.
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For general reading on the subject click on the
following Foreign Affairs Foreign Policy.
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The presidency due to the nature of the
constitutional powers it is granted - has greater
discretion in foreign policy than in domestic
policy.This was the point made in the two
presidencies thesis. The president shares power
with Congress over domestic policy. Whenever
domestic policy is dominant, the presidency tend
to be a bit weaker than if everyone is focused on
a foreign crisis especially a war.
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Nevertheless, the other branches can weigh in on
foreign policy questions, and each can influence
it to some degree based on their functions. The
legislature makes laws that establish the
executive agencies that carry out foreign policy
and provide guidelines for how they are
implemented. They also provide oversee the
actions of the executive branch. The Judiciary
can rule on any constitutional questions that
arise regarding the activities of the other two
branches.
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The Supreme Courts 1936 decision in US v
Curtis-Wright played a role in justifying an
expansive view of the power of the executive
branch to conduct foreign affairs.
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For a more recent example of a challenge to the
Presidents Foreign Affairs Power click here.
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If you want to know what the smart people have to
say about this, here is an expansive look at the
foreign policy roles of the President and
Congress according to the State Department.Its
a good thorough look at the subject.
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If you feel ambitious, here is a Yale Law Journal
article The Executive power over Foreign
Affairs. And here is a briefer Harvard Law
Journal article on the same subject.
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To get a sense of the relationship that can exist
among the branches, here is a rough, descriptive
diagram regarding military and diplomatic powers
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But what is foreign policy?The diplomatic
policy of a nation in its interactions with other
nations.
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More broadly, it can be defined as The
foreign policy of the United States is the way in
which it interacts with foreign nations and sets
standards of interaction for its organizations,
corporations and individual citizens.
Wikipedia.
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Foreign policy is multi faceted and can impact a
variety of ways that nations interact. This can
not only involve the official relations between
the governments of different nations, but the
private organizations within each country as
well.It also involves the nations relationship
with large international organizations.
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These interactions cover a great number of
separate policies.Each presents a unique
challenge and has a different set of actors and
institutions that impact them.
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Policy ArenasDefenseDiplomacyTrade (legal and
illegal)FinanceImmigrationEnvironmentalismetc
. . .The list is exhaustive, and with
technological changes think of the World Wide
Web - one could argue that very few policies
established by any nation have little or no
impact on others.
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The actors, issues and goals in each of these
arenas is distinct we will review the bulk of
these below.First a look at the goals of
foreign policy.
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The Lowi text argues that these are the principle
interrelated - goals of American foreign
policy SecurityProsperityCreation of a
Better World
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It is worth pointing out that not everyone shares
these objectives. Ideological disputes exist over
some of these, notably the later two. Is it the
nations business that the world be better and
how do we decide what better means? How
involved in foreign policy ought we be?
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And depending on how one defines the creation of
a better world the liberal is more likely to
support these efforts given their commitment to
equality, especially when it comes to supporting
poor countries, and increasingly in order to stop
acts of genocide. The conservative is more likely
to oppose these measures, or at least not
prioritize them, unless they directly relate to
the well being of the US.
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Depending upon ones definition of prosperity
the free market conservative would want to pursue
foreign relationships and use the strength of
government to facilitate it - in order to enhance
business opportunities. The liberal would see
this as exploitation.
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The libertarian would argue that we should only
be involved minimally, and these should focus
strictly on security. Anything else is a purely
individual decision made by whoever wishes to
become involved.For examples, here are some of
Ron Pauls statements on foreign policy.
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But some of the Federalist Papers argued that a
stronger national government was necessary in
order to more effectively manage foreign affairs.
Papers 2 to 5 focused on this issue.
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One of the points made was that a confederated
government was unlikely to be able to establish a
solid foreign policy, and disputes between the
states could actually increase the likelihood
that the nation would enter into international
conflicts.
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This explains the prohibitions that exist against
the states having foreign policy powers. These
are listed in Article One, Section Ten of the US
Constitution.
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It is commonly pointed out that Washington, in
his Farewell Address (Wikipedia), argued that
American should have as little political
connection as possible with foreign nations and
should avoid permanent alliances.
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The need to have one consistent foreign policy
was a driving force behind the Federalists desire
to pass a stronger constitution. State driven
foreign policy could be fatal to the preservation
of the Republic. The states could split into
different factions supporting strong relations
with different countries.
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1 - Security
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The United States exists in an often hostile
world, and a variety of institutions have evolved
to assist facing those threats effectively.
Precisely defining the word security can be
difficult however, and it can be controversial
determining what in fact constitutes a threat, as
well as determining how best to address that
threat.
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First, what constitutes a legitimate threat? And
who gets to decide what nations and organizations
are in fact threats? How are threats assessed?
Also, what actions are and are not proper in
order to respond to these threats? Who develops
and implements them?
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Take these three separate policies (the three Ds
of foreign policy) that exist to deal with
potential threats. DevelopmentDiplomacyDefense
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Development Some argue that security is best
dealt with pro-actively by helping the nations of
the world to build up per capita wealth and
capital. This assumes that the nations that are
most likely to become hostile to the US are
relatively impoverished and totalitarian. This
is the argument made in this U.S. Global
Development Policy Fact Sheet.
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This is based on the theory that economically
developed nations with democratic governments
rarely go to war with each other. The nations
that the US has had military conflict with
recently have been relatively poor and
autocratic. Would that conflict have been avoided
if the nations were wealthier and more democratic?
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It is argued that no two countries with a
McDonalds have ever gone to war with each other,
thats not really true, but the point is well
taken.Wealthy countries have more to lose from
war, so they tend to find other ways to work out
their disagreements.
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The agency primarily responsible for
administering civilian foreign aid is the United
States Agency for International Development
(Wikipedia) USAID, which is an independent
federal agency that works under the guidance of
the President, the Secretary of State and the
National Security Council.
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Here is a link to USAIDs Legislative Liaison
Division.Click here for the Center for Global
Developments description of Congress role in
development policy.
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The following committees have congressional
jurisdiction over development policy House
Foreign Affairs Committee Senate Foreign Affairs
Committee
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Those who seek to deal with security through
development try to ensure that other countries
share the same general attitudes that the US has.
This is expected to minimize the degree of
conflict that the US is likely to have with a
foreign country.
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If not there is always diplomacy.
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Diplomacy The art and practice of conducting
negotiations between nations. Security can
also be obtained it is argued with a healthy
diplomatic corps backed with a professional
foreign service.
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As we know from previous slides, the first
executive department established was the State
Department. Generally, positions in the State
Departments have been considered to be reserved
for elites. This is true for the foreign service
as well.
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An example of these elites is The Wise Men, a
group of six men with elite East Coast
backgrounds that dominated foreign policy
establishment from the 1940s 1960s.
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Worth perusing American Diplomacy
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There is an ongoing conflict between those who
seek diplomatic solutions to security threats and
those who seek military solutions.
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A diplomacy that ends in war has failed in its
primary objective. Hans Morgenthau.For
additional info, read Morgenthaus Six Principles
of Political Realism.
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Which leads to defense, naturally.
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War is diplomacy by other means. Carl von
Clausewitz.
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Defense If diplomacy fails, military actions are
inevitable. As discussed previously the War
Department was established soon after the State
Department, and was reorganized in 1947 to
establish the Defense Department. This was to
ensure that the US would no longer simply respond
to threats, but could deter them (deterrence) by
having a sufficiently large military to resist
attack.
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Aside from having a peacetime military, the
purpose of the Defense Department was intended to
increase coordination between agencies that
previously were detached and non-communicative.
The reason the Pentagon was built was to create
one place where these agencies could be housed.
Previously they were spread all across DC.
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The reorganization in 1947 also included the
creation of what is now known as the intelligence
community, which is composed of various
intelligence gathering agencies, most notably the
Central Intelligence Agency.
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The key question with military power is what
factors are used to justify it.
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In previous slides, we discussed the small number
of declared wars and increased number of military
operations and the conflicts associated with
them. Theres little reason to repeat that
information here.
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But its worth considering the different
doctrines that have been developed by presidents
over history to justify the use of
force.Generally American use of power has
expanded as the nation grew.
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The defining approach was established in 1823
Monroe Doctrine.Any intervention by a European
nation in North or South America would be taken
as an aggressive act which the United States
could retaliate against.
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America also claimed a right to all land westward
to the Pacific. This was called Manifest Destiny
and it involved an aggressive use of American
power to claim all this land. But doing so
ensured that the US would eventually become a
power on the Pacific as well as the Atlantic.
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Manifest Destiny was US foreign policy in the
19th Century.
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The Louisiana Purchase ensured that the United
States would control the Mississippi River and
its access to the Gulf. No foreign power could
limit the access of American goods to the world.
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Westward expansion also required a series of
Indian Wars to remove native tribes. In Texas the
most significant was the Comanche War.
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The Mexican American War was fought to solidify
the annexation of Texas, establish the Rio Grande
as the southern border and to occupy what is now
the southwestern part of the United States. By
the way, part of the goal of the War of 1812 was
to capture part of Canada.
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Once the frontier was closed, and the West was
won, American attention turned overseas. Theodore
Roosevelt used American power to aggressively
police activities in the Western Hemisphere.
Territorial expansion began overseas.
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American overseas expansion began with the
Spanish American War which was fought partially
based on the Monroe Doctrine. The US claimed the
right to intervene between Spain and Cuba. After
winning the 10 week war, the US took control of
Puerto Rice, Guam and the Philippines, in
addition to Cuba.
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T Roosevelt was also responsible for inciting the
Panamanian revolt against Columbia in order to
establish themselves as an independent nation
which then allowed for the creation of the Panama
Canal.
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Since the US saw no immediate interests in the
European Conflict which began after the
assassination of Archduke Ferdinand in 1914 (it
was not subject to the Monroe Doctrine) the US
stayed neutral until German submarine attacks
drew it in. The US had been supplying the British
so there were questions raised about whether
the US was in fact neutral.
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Woodrow Wilson was president during that time and
like TR promoted an aggressive use of
American power to ensure the foreign affairs
would benefit the nation. This has since been
referred to as Wilsonianism.
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In a sense this would nationalize the Monroe
Doctrine. The U.S. would claim the right to
interfere in the affairs of any nation if doing
so would benefit us. The problem is that we
assume that out intervention creates more good
than harm. Do we overestimate our ability to
predict the consequences of our interventions?
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But isolationism would remain popular for some
time. This placed limits on the implementation of
Wilsonian policies.It is still a prominent
position taken by many Americans.
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For a description of isolationism and the
conflict over whether the United States should be
involved in foreign affairs, click here. I also
recommend that you read The Myth of American
Isolationism, not everyone believes that American
has resisted foreign entanglements over its
history.
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As a consequence of the carnage in WWI, calls
were made to establish an international
organization to reconcile disputes between
nations so that they do not become violent. The
proposal became the League of Nations, but though
Woodrow Wilson helped establish it, the Senate
refused to ratify the treaty and the US did not
join up.
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Around this period, the Preparedness Movement
developed which promoted a stronger military in
order to allow the nation to provide for a
stronger, ongoing defense. The sinking of the
Lusitania in 1915 and Pancho Villas raids in New
Mexico led to the popularity of the effort (put
it on the Policy Agenda), but it would not
succeed until after WW2. Critics complained that
the nation was unprepared for war, and this
invited attack.
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Nevertheless, as in WW1, the US tried to maintain
neutrality prior to WW2. That proved difficult.
Again, there was a call for neutrality
isolationism prior to an attack which brought
the nation into the war.
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As we already know, following WW2, the US
rethought its military policy and developed the
policy of deterrence to thwart attempts to attack
the nation by developing an overwhelming and
expensive military to intimidate potential
opponents.
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The most consequential result was the
establishment of a permanent peace time military
under the authority of the Department of Defense
(Wikipedia). This was in addition to the creation
of an independent agency to collect intelligence
the Central Intelligence Agency (Wikipedia) as
well as an entire Intelligence Community.
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Wilsonianism began to be implemented.
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The law responsible for creating these agencies
was the National Security Act of 1947. Click here
for the law itself as amended through
2007.Other places where you can get background
on the law - cia.gov- state.gov - fas.org
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The was a hugely consequential law that
transformed the relationship between the US and
the rest of the world. The law established a
variety of new institutions including - The
National Security Council- The Department of
Defense- The Joint Chiefs of Staff- The Central
Intelligence Agency
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As we know, once the Defense Department (and a
permanent peacetime military) was created, the
executive branch and the President specifically
- was in a better position to commit troops to
action without congressional authorization.
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Prior to the establishment of the Defense
Department Congress declared war five times
War of 1812Mexican American WarSpanish
American WarWorld War IWorld War II
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Note that these were not the only times military
forces were authorized during this time.There
was no declaration of war for the Civil War for
example, nor the range of actions known
collectively as the American Indian Wars.
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For more information on the history of US
military operations, click on these - CRS
Instances of Use of US Armed Forces Abroad.-
Timeline of United States military operations-
Military history of the United States- FROM
WOUNDED KNEE TO LIBYA
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All that is now required is an Authorization for
the Use of Military Force, and recently not even
that.
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The greater ability of the executive to direct
the military without the authorization of
Congress has become a matter of concern.Heres
a lengthy CRS report on the subject
Congressional Authority to Limit Military
Operations.
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The Point Theres nothing new about the use of
US military power. Though the scope of that usage
has increased. So has American presence
internationally.
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Also, following WW2 another attempt was made
this time successfully to establish an
international organization to attempt to
reconcile international problems so they do not
explode into world wars.The United Nations
(Wikipedia).
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Three international meeting during WW2 led to the
establishment of the UN - Tehran Conference -
Dumbarton Oaks Conference - Yalta Conference
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For background on the founding of the UN, click
on these - State Department.- Time Magazine
Archive.- UN.org - History of the UN.
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An ideological split has developed over American
involvement in the United Nations. Liberals
tend to more willing to participate within the
organization in order to use diplomacy to solve
global problems, while conservatives see doing so
as a violation of American sovereignty. They are
more supportive of unilateral actions.
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Other international organizations were created at
this time as well, but before detailing what
those institutions are, lets take a quick look
at a major conference that took place in Bretton
Woods, New Hampshire from July 1 22, 1944.The
Bretton Woods Conference.
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The expectation at that time was that the end of
WW2 was approaching and that the allied forces
would win. The assumption among attendees was
that one of the causes of WW2 was the global
economic upheaval of 1930s. The simple goal of
the conference was to determine how this could be
avoided in the future.
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For greater detail on the conference click on
some of these State Department.World
Bank.INET.Time Magazine.
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The conference resulted in the establishment of a
variety of institutions most importantly the
International Monetary Fund (Wikipedia) - as well
as a system of money management that would
provide stability in international financial
affairs, and provide effective mechanisms for
dealing with future crises.
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The arrangement proved beneficial to the United
States because members countries were required to
tie the value of their currency to the U.S.
dollar. This is why the U.S. dollar is the
de-facto world currency.The conference also
established the World Bank
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The World BankThe World Bank is not really a
bank, but instead is an international financial
institution that provides loans to developing
countries for capital programs. Wikipedia.
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For a collection of articles on controversies
involving the IMF and the World Bank, click here.
For ongoing news, click here.
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After WW2 the U.S. alliance with the Soviet union
broke apart and each nation formed a pact with
other nations to enhance their security.The
Soviet Union formed the Warsaw Pact. The U.S.
formed NATO (Wikipedia).
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This is an important point. The US and the Soviet
Union had a common enemy in Nazi Germany and were
therefore able to work together to defeat a
mutual enemy. But once the war was over, the
natural tension between communism and free market
democracies was released. No common enemy existed
to get them to form an alliance.
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This demonstrates that relationships change.
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After the WW2, the world was a very different
place especially for the US.Not only did
Americas military presence around the world
increase, so did its economic and financial
presence.
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Here is a question regarding the strategic use of
Americas new military strength What are its
goals?
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Should security policy and foreign policy in
general aspire to lofty ambitions, like
promoting democracy and eradicating poverty, or
simply take into consideration the pragmatic
realities of life and stick to whatever is
necessary to protect the nation, even at the
expense of prosperity and democracy aboard?
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Here are related terms and concepts
RealpolitikPolitical RealismMachiavellianism
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And a second question Should US foreign policy
be formulated and implemented in consultation
with other nations, or in isolation?
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Relevant terms MultilateralismUnilateralism
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There are ideological distinctions in each.
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The liberal position is that American foreign
policy should be established in cooperation with
other nations and should focus primarily on
increasing the well being of the people of the
nations affected by our policies.
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The conservative position is that the U.S. should
establish foreign policy independently of other
nations or in consultation with a small handful
of allies and that the object of the policies
should be focused narrowly on the economic and
security interests of the US. The impact our
policies have on other nations is a secondary
manner.
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A quick walk through major events since the
National Security Act
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The Cold WarSoon after the end of WW2, the
alliance with the Soviet Union fell apart and a
four decade long stalemate began between it and
the US. While no open conflict occurred between
the two nations- which is why it was called the
Cold War - a large number of proxy wars broke
out between them.
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Nations affiliated with each either fought each
other, or fought either the US or the Soviet
Union. Some nations were affiliated with
Communist China, which complicated things because
China and the Soviet union although both
communist, had historical conflicts between them.
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On March 5, 1946 Winston Churchill delivers his
Iron Curtain Speech which defined the
relationship between communist and free
world.The Iron Curtain
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The policy of containment was also developed
during the Cold War in order to halt the spread
of communism. This policy was used to justify
multiple military actions including Korea and
Vietnam.
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On August 29, 1949 the Soviet Union exploded an
atomic bomb for the first time.This complicated
the Cold War because neither nation wished to
directly invade the other. Each was deterred from
doing so by the mutual assured destruction
doctrine. Thus the proxy wars.
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From June 1950 to July 1953 the US fought as
part of an allied force the Korean War against
forces backed up by China and the Soviet
Union.The war is technically still on, a cease
fire was agreed to in 1953.
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In 1953, the CIA organized and led a coup against
the democratically elected government in Iran and
replaced him with the Shah. This was called
Operation Ajax. It was the CIAs first
successful coup. There would be more.
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The purpose of the coup was two fold. First,
following WW2 the Iranian government and other
Middle East government began to side with the
Soviets. And second, the government was in the
process of nationalizing its oil reserves, which
at that point were controlled by Britain .
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Britain had been heavily involved in the
development of oil since 1908, and British
companies had profited heavily from it.The coup
was a way to ensure that these profits would
continue, and the US nations would get a cut.
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Here is something incredibly awesome Operation
Ajax The App.
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The Shah would eventually be overthrown himself
in 1979 and replaced with an Islamic state, which
continues today.Some suspect the hostility
which led to the current War of Terror has roots
in the 1953 overthrow.
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The Cuban Revolution is a bit complex. The
original revolution was against the dictator
Fulgencio Batista. Only after he was removed from
power did the Cuban government become communist.
Prior to this Castro met with US leaders to
convince them he was not a communist.
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Relations with Cuba had been problematic for
decades, ever since the Spanish American war.
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Castros true intentions were a subject of great
debate, read an analysis of this period here.
Eventually Eisenhower would support covert
actions against Castro, and the Bay of Pigs
invasion pushed Castro towards the Soviets.
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Conflict culminated with the Cuban Missile Crisis
in October 1962.Justification for American
involvement in this matter went back to the
Monroe Doctrine
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Vietnam
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Following the Vietnam War, and a result of the
protests associated with it, the military no
longer drafted people to serve, and instead
became all volunteer, with the requirement that
people register for a potential draft once they
turn 18.Questions have been raised since then
about whether the burden placed on the public as
a consequence are too narrow. Not all families
bear the burdens associated with combat.
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The End of the Cold War
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As discussed previously, after the fall of the
Berlin Wall and the end of the Cold War, the
United States entered a relative period of peace
that coincided with a reduction in the power of
the president.
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The US was involved in two conflicts however. The
Persian Gulf War, where the US participated in an
international effort to remove Saddam Hussein
from Kuwait and lesser efforts to quell the
Yugoslav Wars, which flared up when the former
Yugoslavia broke apart in 1991.
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Peacekeeping
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One area of conflict that the United States did
not become involved in was the genocide in
Rwanda. Perhaps a million people were killed in
three months while the world sat and watched.
The Responsibility to Protect doctrine was
developed as a consequence. Among other things it
argues that A state has a responsibility to
protect its population from mass atrocities.
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During the 1990s several isolated terrorist
attacks occurred that
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The War on Terror
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Bush Doctrine
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From the CRS U.S. Use of Preemptive Military
Force
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Cyber Security
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Foreign Policy and Public Opinion
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For a few items to chew over Brookings
Institute
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Even now, the general public has the lowest level
of support for foreign policy than for any other
public policy. They commonly over estimate how
much money is spent on it.
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