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Gross Anatomy

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Gross Anatomy Background Review Anatomical Position, terminology Nomina Anatomica (Latin) Normal anatomical position upright, arms at side, forearm + hand supine ... – PowerPoint PPT presentation

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Title: Gross Anatomy


1
Gross Anatomy
  • Background Review

2
Anatomical Position, terminology
  • Nomina Anatomica (Latin)
  • Normal anatomical position
  • upright, arms at side, forearm hand supine 

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Planes
  • imaginary lines separating the body at different
    angles
  • 1. Median - longitudinal - separates left and
    right (hit surface at anterior, posterior median
    lines)
  • 2. Coronal also referred as Frontal - vertical,
    right angle to median - separate anterior and
    post (front, back)
  • 3. Horizontal - (often transverse, not always)
    - separate superior inferior (upper
    /lower)(transverse of hand is horizontal but the
    foot is coronal)
  • 4. Sagittal - vertical off-center, parallel to
    median (include midsagittal parasagittal)

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Sections / slices
  • 1. Longitudinal
  • lengthwise through body or an appendage
    (direction of its long axis)
  • can be in median, coronal or sagittal planes
  • 2. Vertical - same as longitudinal but referring
    to body in anatomical position
  • 3. Transverse - cross sections - at right angles
    to long axis (often horizontal)
  • 4. Oblique - slanted, at an angle, not in
    longitudinal or transverse

7
Relational terms
  • to localize different structures on the body in
    anatomical position
  • 1. Anterior ventral - toward front (chest,
    palms, soles) also rostral in brain
  • 2. Posterior dorsal - toward back (dorsum)
  • 3. Superior cranial cephalic - toward head
  • 4. Inferior caudal - below, toward feet (tail)
  • 5. Medial - toward midline or median plane 
  • 6. Lateral - toward side, away from median
    (little toe lateral little finger medial)
  • 7. Intermediate - between 2 structures
  • 8. visceral
  • 9. parietal

8
Relative / Comparison
  • Terms to describe relative positions of to
    compare 2 structures
  • 1. Proximal - nearer trunk or point of origin
  • 2. Distal - farther from trunk or point of origin
  • 3. Superficial - to surface
  • 4. Deep - away from surface
  • 5. External - toward exterior, especially of an
    organ
  • 6. Internal - to the interior of an organ or
    inner surface
  • 7. Ipsilateral - same side of body
  • 8. Contralateral - opposite side ( Right vs. 
    Left )
  • 9. Central - near or towards the center
  • 10. Peripheral - father, away from the center

9
Movements - of body parts
  • 1. Abduction - away from midline
  • 2. Adduction - toward midline
  • 3. Flexion - bend - decrease angle of a joint
  • 4. Extension - straighten - increase angle of a
    joint (hyperextension beyond straight point)
  • 5. Lateral rotation - rotate outward (e.g. leg)
  • 6. Medial rotation - rotate inward
  • 7. Circumduction - circular motion (involves 1-4)
  • 8. Inversion - sole of foot toward median plane

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Movements - of body parts
  • 9. Eversion - sole of foot laterally - outward to
    side
  • 10. Pronation - rotate hand so palm faces
    posterior
  • 11. Supination - rotate hand so palm is anterior
  • 12. Protrusion - move anteriorly - stick out
    (e.g. chin)
  • 13. Retraction / Retrusion - move posteriorly -
    pull, tuck in (shoulders, chin)
  • 14. Elevation - lifting
  • 15. Depression - lowering to a more inferior
    position
  • 16. Opposition - move thumb towards the other
    digits
  • 17. Reposition - move thumb away from other digits

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Systems
  • 1. Integumentary - skin accessory structures
  • 2. Skeletal - bones, cartilages
  • 3. Articular - joints ( bones, ligaments at
    each)
  • 4. Muscular - muscles (part of musculoskeletal)
  • 5. Nervous - brain, spinal cord, nerves
  • 6. Circulatory - vascular - heart arteries,
    veins, capillaries lymphatic (nodes, vessels)

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Systems
  • 7. Respiratory - lungs, diaphragm, airways
  • 8. Digestive - alimentary canal (mouth to anus)
    accessory organs (liver, pancreas etc)
  • 9. Renal / Urinary - kidneys, bladder, excretory
    tubule system
  • 10. Endocrine - endocrine glands (pituitary,
    hypothalamus, adrenals, reproductive glands)
  • 11. Reproductive - ovaries or testes (a.k.a.
    urogenital system, esp. in males)

19
Muscular System
  • function in movement, support (posture), heat
    generation

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Skeletal Muscle
  • 1. striated, voluntary
  • 2. moves bones, skin (facial muscles) -
    typically, origin insertion are attached across
    a joint
  • - most are under our control, although many
    movements are reflexes - eg stretch reflex
  • 3. attachments
  • each has an Origin proximal attachment
    Insertion distal attachment
  • 4. structure  a. muscle fiber muscle cell
    structural unit b. motor unit one motor neuron
    all muscle fibers under its control
  • size varies inversely with precision, delicacy of
    control

21
Skeletal muscle
  • 5. movements a. agonists prime movers - carry
    out the main movement
  • b. antagonists - oppose action of agonists -
    relax as agonist contracts for smooth movement
  • c. synergists - complement/ work with/ support
    prime movers - especially to support the joint
  • d. fixators - steady proximal part of limb while
    distal part is moved (e.g. forearm vs. hand)

22
Smooth muscle
  • 1. non-striated, involuntary - controlled by ANS
  • 2. propels foodstuffs thru alimentary canal
    blood thru vessels a. undergoes peristalsis -
    rhythmic waves of contraction
  • b. maintains a constant level of tone (esp.
    important in vasculature)

23
Cardiac muscle
  • 1. striated, but involuntary - spontaneous
    excitation under control of ANS
  • 2. pumps blood through heart

24
Nervous System
  • Major Functions of the Nervous System
  • 1. Sensory - many receptor types in body sense,
    detect changes in body or surroundings
  • 2. Integration - of information received thru
    sensory system to arrive at a proper response
  • 3. Motor - nerve impulses trigger responses by
    the bodys effectors muscles, glands etc

25
Nervous System
  • Divisions
  • 1. CNS the brain spinal cord - nerves do NOT
    regenerate after injury
  • 2. PNS peripheral nerves that communicate
    between the CNS and the rest of the body- nerves
    MAY regenerate after injury

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Structures
  • 1. Neurons the functional cells of the NS -
    transmit electrical impulsesa. dendrites
    receptive processes receive impulses from
    receptors other neuronsb. axon single
    transmitting process, sends impulse to other
    neurons or to effectors- myelin sheath -
    insulates axon - speeds transmission- nodes of
    Ranvier - spaces between sections of myelin

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Structures
  • 2. Neuroglial cells
  • a. supportive accessory cells - insulate, connect
    neurons, attach neurons with surrounding tissue
  • b. provide nutritive support - to provide energy,
    provide central nervous system with blood
  • 3. Types of Neurons - Classified by Function
  • a. Motor
  • b. Sensory
  • c. Interneurons depends on how information
    flows

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Basic terminology
  • 1. Nucleus - a group of neuronal cell bodies
    within the CNS
  • 2. Ganglion (ganglia, pl) - group of cell bodies
    outside the CNS
  • 3. Nerve - collection of axons (fibers) in PNS
    fasciculus - a bundle of nerves- plexus
    network of nerves in one area
  • 4. Tract - bundle of axons/fibers in the CNS
  • 5. Gray matter - concentrations of cell bodies in
    CNS, e.g.. cerebral cortex
  • 6. White matter - axons, processes in the CNS

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Connective tissue meninges
  • 1. CNS meninges
  • connective tissue surround, protect the nervous
    sytem
  • a. pia mater - immediately next to the nervous
    tissue
  • b. arachnoid - middle layer
  • the 2 inner layers, leptomeninges, thin
    delicate
  • c. dura mater - outermost meninges, thicker
    very tough
  • d. cerebrospinal fluid fills space between
    arachnoid and pia mater

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PNS
  • a. endoneurium thin collagenous layer,
    immediately surrounds a myelinated n fiber
  • b. perineurium CT covering surrounding a
    fascicle of nerve fibers
  • c. epineurium thick CT layer surrounding many
    fascicles wh make up a nerve trunk
  • the 3 CNS meningial layers are continuous with
    the CT layers around PNS nerves

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The Peripheral Nervous System
  • 1. Cranial nerves 12 pair transmit from brain to
    head, neck, trunk (mixed, motor sensory, more
    in Neuro)
  • 2. Spinal nerves 31 pair communicate btw spinal
    cord neck, trunk, arms, legs (mixed)
  • a. Dorsal roots - sensory/afferent fibers into
    cord, dorsal root ganglia contain cell bodies of
    sensory neurons
  • b. Ventral roots - motor/efferent ff from cord to
    periphery, branch once outside cord
  • c. dorsal ventral roots combine, form spinal
    nerve, which branches again
  • dorsal primary rami supply fibers to dorsum
    (back)
  • ventral primary rami supply fibers to
    anterolateral trunk, limbs

37
Somatic Nervous System
  • 1. nerves that communicate w skin skeletal
    muscles
  • 2. functions are under conscious control

38
Autonomic Nervous System
  • 1. concerned with automatic/ visceral functions,
    homeostatic mechanisms (CVS, digestion)
  • 2. function without conscious control
  • 3. control the function of visceral organs -
    heart, smooth muscle, vessels, glands D. ANS has
    2 Divisions

39
Sympathetic Division
  • concerned primarily w survival, emergency,
    stressful situations Fight or flight system
  • a. connects with thoracic lumbar segments T1 -
    L2 or 3
  • b. many connect with Peripheral NS efferent/motor
    neuron in ganglia
  • paravertebral ganglia (sympathetic trunk)
  • prevertebral ganglia  (visceral ganglia., e.g.
    celiac ganglia.)
  • the adrenal medulla (exception, innervated by
    preganglionic fiber directly)
  • c. route spinal cord lateral horn - sympathetic
    axons (preganglionic) gt through ventral root gt
    through white ramus communicante (branch to
    ganglion) gt to paravertebral ganglia 

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Sympathetic Division
  • then either 1) passes through ganglia (without
    synapse) directly to viscera (as a splanchnic
    nerve)
  • 2) ascends or descends through trunk to another
    level, then postganglionic fibers innervate
    organs like heart, lungs, glands
  • 3) synapses in ganglia with excitor neurons gt
    postganglionic go back through gray ramus
    communicante gt then blend in with spinal nerve gt
    effectors

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Parasympathetic system
  • Breed and Feed
  • a. concerned w normal functions eating,
    sleeping, procreation, conserving energy
  • b. connects with cranial sacral segments
    cranial III, VII, IX, X spinal S2 - S4

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Spinal cord
  • 1. continuation of the CNS from the brain, out of
    the skull into the vertebral column
  • 2. composed of 31 segments - a pair of spinal
    nerve exits each segment, to the periphery
  • 3. gray matter localized to central core mostly
    cell bodies, proximal unmyelinated process
  • 4. white matter surrounds central area composed
    of primarily myelinated axons, fibers

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Spinal cord
  • 5. Function - spinal cord communicates to from
    the brain the remainder of the body
  • a. ascending tracts carry sensory input to CNS
    (some to spinal cord, some to brain)
  • b. descending tracts leaving the brain spinal
    cord carry motor output to effectors
  • c. most fiber tracts cross to contralateral side
    at some point in spinal cord or brain

50
  • mixed nerves
  • 31 pairs
  • 8 cervical (C1 to C8)
  • 12 thoracic (T1 to T12)
  • 5 lumbar (L1 to L5)
  • 5 sacral (S1 to S5)
  • 1 coccygeal (Co)

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Dermatome
  • an area of skin that the sensory nerve fibers of
    a particular spinal nerve innervate

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