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Classical Conditioning

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Title: Classical Conditioning


1
Classical Conditioning
  • How do you get a dog to salivate when he hears a
    bell?

Pavlov's Dog
2
Classical Conditioning
  • Classical Conditioning Associating a natural
    stimulus and a neutral stimulus

natural stimulus produces a predictable
response neutral stimulus does not produces any
particular response
3
Classical Conditioning
  • Application of Classical Conditioning
    Psychologists use

Unconditioned stimulus (UCS) (natural
stimulus) that produces an unconditioned response
(UCR) at the same time as a . . .
4
Classical Conditioning
Conditioned stimulus (CS) (once-neutral
stimulus) producing the same response, called a
conditioned response (CR) after several
repetitions
5
More realistic example
  • Getting dental work done (unconditioned stimulus)
  • hurts (unconditioned response)
  • Eventually the sound of the dentists drill
    (conditioned stimulus)
  • causes anxiety, fear, or pain (conditioned
    response)

6
Generalization/Discrimination
  • You may either generalize respond the same to
    all drill sounds (similar stimuli), or
  • Discriminate If you learn to respond only to
    dental drill sounds (distinct stimuli)

7
Extinction
  • If the conditioned stimulus
  • is NOT followed by the same unconditioned
    stimulus
  • It will result in extinction and the conditioned
    response will disappear

8
Operant Conditioning
  • Learning from consequences of behavior
  • The behavior is either reinforced (increases) or
    punished (decreases)

9
Reinforcement
  • Reinforcement stimulus or event that increases
    the likelihood a behavior will be repeated
  • Example to get a dog to shake hands, you must
    give it a treat
  • (reinforcement) every time
  • it raises its paw

10
Reinforcement
  • Primary Reinforcer stimulus that satisfies a
    biological need (food or water)
  • Secondary Reinforcer stimulus like money that
    gives a reward by being linked with a primary
    reinforcer (food)

11
Schedules of Reinforcement
  1. Fixed Ratio reinforcement after a fixed number
    of responses (paid after every 10 pizzas made)
  2. Variable Ratio reinforcement after varying
    number of responses (playing a slot machine)

12
Schedules of Reinforcement
  • 3. Fixed Interval reinforcement of first
    response after a fixed amount of time (picking up
    your paycheck after 2 weeks)
  • 4. Variable Interval reinforcement of first
    response after varying amounts of time (calling a
    friend but getting a busy signal)

Variable reinforcers are more resistant to
extinction than fixed reinforcers
13
Shaping
  • A process of achieving a desired behavior by
    rewarding similar behaviors until the desired
    behavior is reached
  • Example To get a dog to lie down and roll over,
    you must reward each act until the desired trick
    is learned

14
Negative Reinforcement
  • A behavior increases by removing or preventing a
    painful stimulus
  • Example you take an aspirin to relieve a
    headache the headache is a negative reinforcer
    to taking aspirin (aspirin taking increases)

15
Punishment
  • An unpleasant consequence decreases the frequency
    of the behavior that produced it
  • Example Yelling NO!! every time a child gets
    close to the fire will stop the unsafe behavior
  • Can produce unwanted side effects
  • Rage
  • Aggression
  • Fear

16
Social Learning
  • Altering behavior by observing and imitating the
    behavior of others

17
Social Learning
  • Cognitive Learning altering behavior by mental
    processes
  • Latent Learning learning or remembering details
    without intending to (seeing the same things on a
    regular driving route)
  • Learned helplessness repeated attempts to
    control a situation fail, you feel helpless
    (cannot change a situation, cannot escape
    punishment often leads to depression)

18
Social Learning
  • Modeling learning by imitating others

19
Social Learning
  • Behavior Modification systematic application of
    learning principles to change peoples actions
    and feelings
  • Examples
  • Use classical conditioning to overcome fears
  • Operant conditioning using token economies by
    reinforcing desired behaviors by giving tokens
    that can be exchanged for rewards later
  • Social learning through personal systems of
    rewards and punishments to create self-control

20
Group Activity
  • In groups of 3, read the two behaviors you are
    given
  • Decide what general kind of conditioning they
    describe (Classical or Operant) and if operant,
  • Determine what specific kind of operant
    conditioning (positive reinforcement, negative
    reinforcement, punishment)
  • Explain the example and your answers to the class
  • Take notes on all examples given (they will be on
    the test)

21
Group Activity
Example Type of Conditioning Notes, comments
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
22
Memory
  • Memory storage and retrieval of what has been
    learned or experienced

23
Processes of Memory
  • 1. Encoding transforming information so the
    nervous system can process it

Can encode by Seeing the letters Hearing them
spoken or Making a connection face
E
C
A
F
24
Processes of Memory
  1. Storage maintaining information over time
    (depends on how much effort was put into encoding
    the information)
  2. Retrieval information is brought to mind from
    storage (depends on how efficiently it was
    encoded and stored)

25
3 Stages of Memory
  • 1. Sensory memory brief memory storage
    immediately following a sensory input
  • 1 V F
  • X L 5 3
  • B 7 W 5

Lasts only a fraction of a second
26
3 Stages of Memory
  • 2. Short-term memory memory of about 7 items,
    lasts about 20 seconds

Lasts longer if repeated
Chunking grouping items to make them easier to
remember
Primacy-Recency Effect
27
3 Stages of Memory
  • 3. Long-term memory storage of information over
    extended periods of time

I before e except after c
Semantic memory knowledge of language rules,
words, meanings
Episodic memory memories of your life
Declarative memory information retrieved as
needed
a2b2c2
Procedural memory learned skills, does not need
conscious recollection
28
Retrieving Information
  • Recognition the retrieval of an idea, object,
    or situation you have experienced before
  • Recognizing songs or instruments
  • Recognizing answers on a multiple choice test

29
Retrieving Information
  • Recall active reconstruction of previously
    learned material. Influenced by
  • Reconstructive process altering or distorting
    our memories (selective memory)
  • Confabulation filling in memory gaps with
    information/experiences that were not there
  • Schemas conceptual frameworks we use to make
    sense of the world
  • Eidetic memory a photographic memory

30
Relearning/Forgetting
  • Relearning Can relearn previously learned
    information with less work (reciting a nursery
    rhyme or poem from your childhood)
  • Forgetting
  • Decay fading away of memory over time
  • Older memories remain (can be recovered through
    hypnosis, meditation, brain stimulation)
  • Interference blockage of memory by prior or
    later memories
  • Amnesia loss of memory from a blow to the head
    or infant amnesia (lack of early memories)

31
Improving Memory
  • Elaborate Rehearsal linking of new information
    to material that is already known
  • Associate new information with past events,
    relationships, feelings
  • Learn new information in small bits instead of
    all at once (dont cram)

32
Improving Memory
  • Mnemonic Devices Using associations to memorize
    and retrieve information
  • Acrostics (Queen of Hearts eats raspberry cream
    tarts)
  • Use mental pictures to learn making up words,
    stories, etc. to remember

33
Spacing Effect
  • Distributing rehearsal (spacing effect) is better
    than practicing all at once. Robert Frosts poem
    could be memorized with fair ease if spread over
    time.

34
Chunking
  • Organizing items into a familiar, manageable
    unit. Try to remember the numbers below
  • 1-7-7-6-1-4-9-2-1-8-1-2-1-9-4-1
  • If you are well versed with American history,
    chunk the numbers together and see if you can
    recall them better.
  • 1776 1492 1812 1941.

35
Rehearsal
  • Effortful learning usually requires rehearsal or
    conscious repetition.
  • Ebbinghaus studied rehearsal by using nonsense
    syllables TUV YOF GEK XOZ
  • The more times the nonsense syllables were
    practiced on Day 1,
  • the fewer repetitions were required to remember
    them on Day 2.

  • !

36
Using only your notes, on a clean sheet of paper,
list the following
  • The 3 Processes of Memory
  • The 3 Stages of Memory
  • The 4 kinds of long term memory
  • The 4 things that influence our recall
  • The definition of mnemonic devices

37
Psychological Testing
  • Test Reliability ability of a test to give the
    same results under similar circumstances
  • Do you score about the same when retaken?
  • Do different people give you the same score?
  • Do you do about the same on each section of the
    test?

38
Psychological Testing
  • Test Validity ability of a test to measure what
    it is intended to measure
  • Does the test accurately predict performance?

39
Psychological Testing
  • Standardization test must be given the same way
    each time
  • The test must establish an average score (norm)
    of a large, well defined, group of people

Norm standard of comparison for test results
40
Psychological Testing
  • Questions to ask when getting a score
  • Would you score the same if you took the test
    again?
  • Does the score reflect your knowledge of the
    subject?
  • Does your score compare fairly with other
    students who took the test?

41
Intelligence Testing
  • Intelligence
  • The ability to acquire new ideas and new behavior
    and to adapt to new situations
  • Or
  • The ability to do well on intelligence tests and
    in school

42
Theories of Intelligence
  • In groups of 4-5 read about the theory of
    intelligence on your card in Section 2 of Chapter
    13 (p. 349-352)
  • Summarize the main features of the theory
  • Present them to the class who will complete a
    chart in their notes on the theories

43
Theories of Intelligence
Theory Main Features Issus, Criticisms
Spearman
Thurstone
Gardner
Sternberg
Emotional Intelligence
44
Intelligence Tests
  • Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scale (1973)
  • Children tested one at a time
  • Define words, draw pictures, explain events in
    daily life
  • Intelligence Quotient (IQ) Mental
    Age/Chronological Age X 100

45
Intelligence Tests
  • Wechsler Tests (1981)
  • Tests for adults and children
  • One overall score, plus
  • Percentile scores in several areas (vocabulary,
    math, picture arrangement)
  • More detailed picture of individuals strengths
    and weaknesses

Percentile percent of people taking the test
who scored lower than your score
46
Intelligence Tests
  • You should complete these questions in 60 seconds
    or less!
  • 1.Two ducks and two dogs have a total of fourteen
    legs. True   False
  • 2.A pie can be cut into more than seven pieces by
    making four diameter cuts. True   False
  • 3.Two of the following numbers add up to
    thirteen.1, 6, 3, 5, 11 True   False

47
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48
Personality Testing
  • Personality Tests assess personality
    characteristics and identify problems
  • Objective tests
  • limited or forced-choice format
  • Used to study personality characteristics
  • Projective tests
  • unstructured
  • Test-taker can respond freely with their own
    interpretation of various stimuli

49
Personality Testing
  • Objective Test Examples
  • MMPI (Minnesota Multiphasic Personality
    Inventory)
  • 567 true-false questions
  • Used to assess major patterns of personality and
    extreme emotional disorders
  • Usually given with other tests or interviews

50
MMPI
  • 1. I like mechanics magazines
  • 2. I have a good appetite
  • 3. I wake up fresh rested most mornings
  • 4. I think I would like the work of a librarian
  • 5. I am easily awakened by noise
  • 6. I like to read newspaper articles on crime
  • 7. My hands and feet are usually warm enough

51
Personality Testing
  • Objective Test Examples
  • CPI (California Psychological Inventory)
  • true-false questions
  • Measures traits such as responsibility,
    self-control, and tolerance
  • Used to predict adjustment to stress, leadership,
    and job success
  • Usually follow-up test with counseling or
    discussion with a psychologist

52
Personality Testing
  • Objective Test Examples
  • Myers-Briggs Test
  • Characterizes personality on four different
    scales
  • Shows test takers how they relate to others and
    how others relate to them

53
Personality Testing
  • Projective Test Examples
  • Rorschach Inkblot Test
  • Inkblot designs are shown to the test-taker who
    says what he/she sees
  • Reveals aspects of the persons personality
  • Results often depend on the psychologists
    expectations

54
Rorschach Test
55
Rorschach Test
56
Personality Testing
  • Projective Test Examples
  • TAT (Thematic Apperception Test)
  • Pictures of vague but suggestive situations
  • Subjects are asked to tell a story about the
    picture
  • Used to assess personality problems of the
    test-taker

57
TAT
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