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12.1 Minerals
Chapter 19 Problem Sets 5 and 6 (Vitamins and
Minerals) Chapt 19 1,2, 5,10,11,17,46
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MINERALS Macro- and Micro-
Nutritional minerals the various elements that
are essential for proper functioning of the human
metabolism, ie. for good health. Living beings
simply cannot generate minerals in their own
bodies. All of our minerals became part of the
earth at its creation and enter our bodies only
from the earth, directly through the plants we
eat or indirectly from the animals that feed on
plants.

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Fats 20
20 Protein,
Carbohydrates, Calcium, Phosphorus
Water 60
Vitamins and all other minerals (less
than 1)
Of the nearly 90 naturally-occurring elements,
only 11 of them make up over 99 of the mass of
the human body.
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Major Elements of the Human Body

Element
Symbol
by weight
by atoms
Oxygen O 64.6
25.5 Carbon C 18.0
9.4 Hydrogen H 10.0
63.0 Nitrogen N 3.1
1.4 Calcium Ca 1.9
0.3 Phosphorus P 1.1
0.2 Chlorine Cl 0.40
0.06 Potassium K 0.36
0.03 Sulfur S 0.25
0.05 Sodium Na 0.11
0.04 Magnesium Mg 0.03 0.01
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Elements H ,C ,N ,O, (S) (from
macronutrients)
Macro Minerals Ca, P, Mg, Na, K, Cl, (S)
(over 400 mg)
Trace Minerals F, I, Fe, Cu, Zn, Cr,
Mo, (under 15 mg)
Mn, Co, Se
Probable Trace Ni, Si, Sn, V, B, As (in
animals )
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For the essential nutritional minerals of our
diet
the 'metals' are
present as cations, eg. Na,Ca the
'non-metals' occur as anions, eg. I-, PO43-
As a consequence they are water-soluble, are
excreted and may need to be
replaced. Overcooking foods in boiling
water will leach out many of the
minerals. Many
mineral supplements are not as readily
absorbable as "natural sources'.
Concentrations of many trace minerals are
dependant on others, ie. ratios are
important.

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The nutrient minerals have varied functions
components of enzymes, structural components in
bones and teeth, electrolyte balance in body
fluids and as transport 'vehicles'. The minerals
must be maintained in balanced amounts, with no
deficiencies and no excesses. Many of the bodys
minerals, because they are water-soluble, are
excreted daily in the feces, urine and sweat and
must therefore be replenished. For most of the
minerals, the amount excreted each day is very
nearly the amount ingested.
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There are 46 different minerals in the human
body, 21 of which are known to be essential.
The seven macrominerals make up about 4 of
body weight. They are calcium, phosphorus,
magnesium, sodium, potassium, chloride and
sulfur. The macrominerals are necessary in
building bones, maintaining body fluids,
maintaining proper pH in body tissues,
transmitting nerve impulses, maintaining cell
membrane structures and facilitating enzyme
action.
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Sodium , potassium and chloride, as ions
(Na,K, Cl- ), are essential to electrolyte
balance in body fluids. Electrolyte balance, in
turn, is essential for fluid balance,
acidbase balance and
transmission of nerve impulses.
When there is extreme fluid loss through
vomiting, diarrhea traumatic injury, electrolytes
must be supplied to restore their concentration
in body fluids .
Name
Function
Sodium (Na)
Major extracellular ion
Potassium (K)
Major intracellular ion
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Sodium is a vital micronutrient, but is present
in most NA diets through excessive intake of
salt (sodium chloride). Physicians recommend
ingesting about 1.2 grams of sodium/day (or
3gms of salt). This is twice the estimated
minimum requirement.
Many N.Americans exceed the recommended daily
intake by 3X. For example, a typical double
burger contains nearly 1g of sodium.
Normal daily urinary excretion of sodium is in
the range of 1.4 to 7.8g for adults. If excess
sodium is not eliminated, water is retained,
which may lead to edema (swollen legs and
ankles). Various clinical studies have shown that
increased levels of sodium raise the blood
pressure of some individuals but have no effect
on the blood pressure of others. The high salt
diets of 70 g per day in certain areas of Japan
have traditionally produced an unusually high
frequency of heart attacks .
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Food limerick 1

• There was an old fellow called Walt
• Who seasoned his food with much salt
• His blood pressure rose
• From his head to his toes
• So his doctor told him to halt!

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Potassium
Though less abundant in the body than its
sister element, sodium, is still essential to
intracellular enzyme activity and the
transmission of nerve impulses.

Peaches, watermelon, bananas and potatoes are
rich sources of potassium and can be eaten to
meet the estimated 2g (2000 mg ) daily
requirement.
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The regulation of the concentration of K
relative to Na is especially important for the
proper rhythmic beating of the heart. In the
case of some nutrient elements, good health
depends on the element being present in the
proper amount and in the proper ratio to one or
more other elements. An example of an important
ratio is the potassium/ sodium ratio (K/Na ratio)
which has to be within certain limits to
facilitate the transmission of electrical signals
between nerve cells .
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Typical values of the K/Na ratio are greater
than 1. Some K/Na ratios for specific tissues
are muscle, 4 liver, 2.5 heart,1.8 brain,1.7
and kidney,1.0. Natural, unprocessed food have
high K/Na weight ratios. Fresh, leafy, vegetables
average a K/Na ratio of 35. Fresh, non-leafy
vegetable and fruits average a ratio of 360, with
extreme values of 3 for beets and 840 for
bananas. K/Na ratios in meats range from 2 to
12.
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Potassium and sodium compounds are quite
soluble in water. During processing (and cooking,
if foods are boiled), both potassium and sodium
compounds are dissolved by water and discarded.
The sodium is replenished by salting of the
food (addition of sodium chloride). Potassium is
usually not added to the food.
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In general

• No nutritional need for us to add salt to our
  foods
• Already enough present!!

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Calcium the major
component of bones and teeth needed
for blood clotting,
required for muscle contraction and
transmission of other nerve
impulses. slows down the heartbeat by
increasing electrical resistance
across nerve membranes.
Calcium is metabolized in the body by a hormone
synthesized from (vitamin D). Fat slows down
calcium absorption but lactose speeds it up.
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Bones and Teeth
If mineralization and demineralization occur at
the same rate, there is a state of dynamic
equilibrium between these two opposing reactions
and no net loss results
Demineralization
Ca5(PO4)3OH 5Ca2 3PO43- OH-
Mineralization
NB -OH H H2O
Excess H removes -OH causing demineralization
Substituting F for OH produces a more stable
crystal and 100 times less soluble in acids.
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Hydroxyapatite fluoride effects

• Structural reinforcement

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Fluoridation of Drinking water

• NaF at 1 ppm level used since 1960 in most
  Canadian cities substantial reduction in tooth
  decay
• Also Sodium monofluorophosphate in toothpaste
  Na2PO3F source of F-
• Do we need both?
• Argument against Fluoride is toxic

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Cheaper fluoride sources

• Hydrofluorosilicic acid (HFSA) now used
  extensively (cheaper than NaF)
• By product of wet scrubbing of phosphate
  fertilizer factory smokestacks
• CaF2.93Ca3(PO4)2 Fluoroapatite mineral source
• H2SiF6 is shipped as a 23 solution, then diluted
  180,000 1 with municipal water
• Contains very low levels of lead and arsenic
  impurities

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Gatineau City council decision

• In favour of fluoridation
• Niagara Regional Council rejected motion to
  fluoridate on Jan 24, 2008
• Still controversial! Ottawa Citizen Letters to
  Editor Feb 4, 2008!
• What do you think?

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A deficiency of calcium, usually in older
persons and especially in post-menopausal women,
can lead to loss of 'bone density' or brittle
bones. The hormone estrogen suppresses bone
dissolution.To maintain good bone density, one
should ingest 1) 1.5g/day of 'soluble' Ca2 2)
adequate Vit.D3) adequate Mg2This must be
accompanied by sufficient weight bearing
exercise.NB. Caffeine in 5-6 cups of coffee/day
inhibits Ca uptake by 30!
Osteoporosis
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Bone Density Profiles
Dens i t y

yrs
10 20 30 40 50 60
_
general popn, pre 1980 post menopause, pre
1980
general, 2000!
In women over 65/70 more deaths due
to'complications' of broken hips/pelvis/vertebrae
than from breast cancer! NB. Increasing number of
women not reaching adequate bone density by 30/35
years.
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Why the change over the last 27 years?

• Lifestyles becoming more sedentary
• Poorer nutrition
• Too much caffeine?

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Hormone Replacement therapy (HRT)

• Menopausal women given Estrogen supplements-
  (recall estrogen inhibits bone dissolution)
• Also helps control hot flashes
• Downside increases breast cancer risk
• risk/benefit ratio needs to be considered!

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Bone Structure
osteo
normal
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Magnesium (Mg)
Uses 'energy production' nerve function bone
teeth formation helps regulate heart
rhythm assists blood clottingaids
in insulin function. RNI (Recommended Nutritional
Intake) 200mg/day Deficiency risk of heart
disease and diabetes Sources whole grains,
nuts, legumes, green veggies,
shellfish( largely eliminated in
processed foods) Demo Magnesium in chlorophyll
(peas)
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Chorophyll

• The antenna that plants use to harvest suns
  energy
• -Absorbs both red and violet lighthence
  reflected light appears green

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Complementary colors absorbed reflected (seen)
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Cooking green vegetables (peas)

• Central magnesium ion (Mg2) in chlorophyll is
  replaced by 2 protons (H) from citric and malic
  acids in the food. This changes the amount of E
  needed to excite the electrons, hence changing
  the colour yukky green peas!!

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Effect of baking soda (NaHCO3)

• Neutralizes the acids in the vegetables
• Green colour maintained (more appetizing)

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A penny for your pots!

• Green chlorophyll colour does not fade when a
  penny is added to the pot
• Acids in the peas cause a bit of the Cu to
  dissolve and the Cu2 ion displaces the Mg2 in
  the chlorophyll, producing a more stable complex
  with a central copper ion.

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Keeping pickles looking fresh and green

• Grandma may have added a penny to the pickle jar!
  Vinegar will discolour vegetables over time.
• Canning lime or pickling lime hydrated CaO
  used to keep pickles crisper (less mushy). Ca2
  ion displaces Mg2.

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Phosphorus (PO43-)
Uses necessary component of bones/teeth,
phospholipids and Adenosine TriPhosphate
(metabolic energy-transfer agent) RNI
1000mg(1g)/day Deficiency rare Sources
meat/fish/poultry, dairy products, colas
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Sulfur (-SH, SO42-)
Uses component of two amino acids and
vitamins important functional group
in 10 protein structure part of
sulfate anion RNI not established Deficiency
unknown Sources all protein (plant animal)
from amino acids cystine and methionine
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Essential Trace Minerals Ten are confirmed as
essential for humans iron, copper, zinc,
manganese, iodine, fluoride, chromium, selenium,
molybdenum, cobalt,
Essential for mammals, but not yet confirmed for
humans, are nickel, vanadium, silicon
(plus arsenic, boron, tin)
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Manganese in blueberry juice

• Sharper MRI (magnetic resonance imaging) signals
  seen for bile ducts and other parts of GI system
• Mn atomic number 25 (electron configuration 1s2,
  2s2,2p6,3s2,3p6,4s2,3d5 has 5 unpaired electrons,
  hence acts as a relaxation agent for water and
  faster MRI signals

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Blueberry juice rich in manganese

• Given to patients at St. Pauls Hospital
  Vancouver before MRI scans on GI system.

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Micronutrient Terminology in Canada
RNI (Recommended Nutrient Intakes) - the re-
commended amount of essential nutrients for
healthy individuals in each age/gender
group. RDI (Recommended Daily Intakes) - the
highest recommended RNI value for each
nutrient (used on food labels).
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Micronutrient Terminology in USA
RDA (Recommended Dietary Allowances) -
intake levels of essential nutrients that are
'adequate to meet the known nutritional
needs of practically all healthy
persons'. USRDA (Recommended Daily Allowances) -
standards for nutritional information
on food labels (based on RDAs).
Similar to, respectively, RNI and RDI in Canada
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Nutritional Values - NA 'Harmonization'
Canadian US nutritional scientists are
establishing consistent values for all
food-related categories. These will be called
Dietary Reference Intakes (DRIs) and will cover
the following categories 1) calcium, vit.D,
phosphorus, magnesium, fluoride 2) folate and
other B vitamins 3) antioxidants

4) macronutrients 5) trace elements 6)
electrolytes and water 7) fiber and other food
components Compendia for the first two categories
are now (2001) published.
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Iodine (I-)
Uses essential for thyroid gland to produce
thyroxine, a hormone that regulates all
cell metabolism, ie.
growth/development. RNI 160 mcg/day Deficiencies
enlarged thyroid(goiter) severe
mental retardation(cretinism) of newborns
can occur if pregnant women are
deficient. Sources salt water fish/vegetation,
iodized salt


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Goiter its not pleasant !
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Thyroid gland enlargement

• Expands in an attempt to produce enough thyroxine!

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Iodine deficiency was virtually eliminated in NA
in 1924 by a Public Health initiative requiring
the inclusion of potassium iodide(KI) in table
salt by the Morton Salt Co. Worldwide 1.6
billion people still suffer from iodine
deficiency. In the 1990's an epidemic of fetal
brain development/mental retardation was reported
from the interior of China leaving 1 million
with some retardation(gt100,000 as cretins)!
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Iodized salt

• Mostly NaCl, but KI added

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Also present in salt

• SiO2 (sand!) as a very fine powder
• Stops caking by absorbing moisture
• Not metabolized!

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Thyroxine the Thyroid Hormone
Tyrosine(essential a.a.)
I2
Thyroxine
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Iron (Fe) Iron is part of heme which is
critical for the transport of oxygen by
hemoglobin and the temporary storage of oxygen
in heart muscles by myoglobin. RNI 8 - 10mg/day
(higher for pregnant women) Deficiency anemia(
the red blood cells are low in
hemoglobin and thus carry a decreased
oxygen supply), fatigue, decreased
resistance to infection. Sources
animal protein,seafood, dried fruits, bran
Heme Iron in red meat is best!
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• Anemia can be caused not only by iron
  deficiency but also 'heredity' or
  lack of vits. B6, B9 or B12
  (pernicious anemia).
• A person with 20 of normal hemoglobin levels
  still has the energy/strength to
  walk.

• Iron must be absorbed as Fe2 ions. Iron from
  animal sources tends to be better
  absorbed than that ingested from
  plant sources or 'pills'.
• Caution, excess iron can be toxic!
• An estimated 20 of North Americans (particularly
  post-puberty women) have iron
  deficiencies.

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Iron in your cereal (DEMO)

• Reduced iron is metallic iron Fe0.
• GER ( Gain of electrons is reduction)
• Fe3 (ferric) 3 electrons gt Iron
• Fe2 (ferrous) 2 electrons gt Iron
• Body uses ferrous in heme proteins myoglobin and
  hemoglobin

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Zinc (Zn)
Uses cell growth proper functioning of
immune system RNI 9-12 mg/day Deficiency
poor wound healing dwarfism (in
extreme cases, eg. Middle East). Sources
protein available in cheese, beans,
nuts, wheat germ but not readily absorbed
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Do Zinc supplements treat the common cold?

• Zinc is required for the development and
  activation of T-lymphocytes, a type of white
  blood cell that helps to fight infection. Zn
  supplements increase the numbers of T-lymphocytes
  in the blood and thus help fight infection

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In general

• It is believed that for Zn lozenges to work, (a)
  they must be taken at the first signs of a cold,
  and (b) continued for the duration of the cold.
• Most evidence supports (a) but not necessarily
  (b).
• If (a) works , then (b) should not be needed!!
• Often combined with Vit. C, sugar and Echinacea
  in formulation

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Zinc lozenges

• Over the counter take at the 1st sign of a cold
• Boost immune system

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Copper (Cu)
Uses structural proteins, nerve cells,
pigmentation Est. 2mg/day Deficiencies poor
tendons/ arterial walls, skeletal
defects Sources nuts, raisins, liver,
legumes, shellfish
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Selenium (Se)
Uses antioxidant (anti-cancer?!) reduces blood
thickening Est. 100mcg/day
(extremely toxic if gt800mcg) Sources animal
protein grains if soil has it.
Epidemiological / Statistical correlation
live stock (Great Plains ) and heart
disease (Trendy!)
.
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Cobalt (Co)
Uses essential part of Vit. B12 RNI Not
established (probably mcg) Deficiences anemia,
growth retardation Sources only animal protein
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Chromium (Cr)
Use assists insulin production helps breakdown
protein and fat Est.
150mcg/day Deficiency increased risk of
diabetes Source whole grains, nuts, seafood,
prunes, potatoes