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Module 2

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Title: Module 3 Author: user Last modified by: franciscoj Created Date: 2/5/2004 3:15:48 AM Document presentation format: On-screen Show Company: Western OK State College – PowerPoint PPT presentation

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Title: Module 2


1
Module 2
  • Psychology Science

2
Levels What is studied?
Genetic Gene function, heritability, twin and adoption studies
Neurochemical Neurotransmitters, hormones animal studies, pharmaceutical drug studies,
Brain systems Neuroanatomical structures, animal studies, brain imaging
Behavioral Observable actions, responses, physical movements
Perceptual and Cognitive Thinking, decision-making, language, memory, motivation, beliefs
Social Situations, context, cultural norms, group decision-making, group behavior
Individual Personality traits, sex differences, human development
3
SCIENTIFIC METHOD
  • Advantages of scientific method
  • scientific Method
  • approach of gathering information and answering
    questions so that errors and biases are minimized

4
SCIENTIFIC METHOD
  • Conducting Research seven rules
  • Rule 1 Ask
  • Rule 2 Identify
  • Rule 3 Choose
  • Rule 4 Assign
  • Rule 5 Manipulate
  • Rule 6 Measure
  • Rule 7 Analyze

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SCIENTIFIC METHOD
  • Rule 1 Ask
  • hypothesis
  • educated guess about some phenomenon stated in
    precise, concrete language to rule out any
    confusion or error in the meaning of its terms

9
SCIENTIFIC METHOD
  • Rule 2 Identify
  • independent variable
  • a treatment or something that the researcher
    controls or manipulates
  • dependent variable
  • one or more of the subjects behaviors that are
    used to measure the potential effects of the
    treatment or independent variable

10
SCIENTIFIC METHOD
  • Rule 3 Choose
  • random selection
  • each participant in a sample population has an
    equal chance of being selected for the experiment
  • Rule 4 Assign
  • experimental group
  • those who receive the treatment
  • control group
  • participants who undergo all the same procedures
    as the experimental participants except that the
    control participants do not receive the treatment

11
SCIENTIFIC METHOD
  • Rule 5 Manipulate
  • double blind procedure
  • neither participants nor researchers know which
    group is receiving which treatment
  • Rule 6 Measure
  • by manipulating the treatment so that the
    experimental group receives a different treatment
    than the control group, researchers are able to
    measure how the independent variable (treatment)
    affects those behaviors that have been selected
    as the dependent variables

12
SCIENTIFIC METHOD
  • Rule 7 Analyze
  • statistical procedures
  • used to determine whether differences observed in
    dependent variables (behaviors) are due to
    independent variables (treatment) or to error or
    chance occurrence

13
ANSWERING QUESTIONS
  • Researchers use all five methods
  • Survey
  • Case Study
  • Experiment
  • Observation
  • Correlational Comparison
  • each method provides a different kind of
    information

14
SURVEYS
  • Survey
  • way to obtain information by asking many
    individuals
  • answer a fixed set of questions about particular
    subjects

15
SURVEYS
  • Disadvantages
  • information can contain errors
  • results can be biased
  • Advantage
  • efficient way to obtain much information from a
    large number of people

16
CASE STUDY
  • Case study
  • an in-depth analysis of the thoughts, feelings,
    beliefs, experiences, behaviors, or problems of a
    single individual

17
CASE STUDY
  • Disadvantage
  • detailed information about a particular person
    may not apply to others
  • Advantage
  • detailed information allows greater understanding
    of a particular persons life

18
EXPERIMENT
  • Experiment
  • a method for identifying cause-and-effect
    relationships by following a set of rules and
    guidelines that minimize the possibility of
    error, bias, and chance occurrences.

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EXPERIMENT
  • Disadvantage
  • information obtained in one experimental
    situation or laboratory setting may not apply to
    other situations
  • Advantage
  • has the greatest potential for identifying
    cause-and-effect relationships with less error
    and bias than either surveys or case studies

21
OBSERVATION
  • Naturalistic
  • Performing an observation in a natural setting,
    sometimes hiding from the subjects being studied
  • Advantage
  • Often yields genuine data, since subjects are
    unaware of study
  • Disadvantage
  • - Reactivity
  • - Observer Bias

22
OBSERVATION
23
Measures of Central Tendency
  • When studying and comparing statistics, often
    times you want to give what is common, typical,
    average etc. To do this you use mean, median, and
    the mode.
  • Mean the arithmetic average of all the
    individual measurements in a distribution

24
Measures of Central Tendency
  • Mean the arithmetic average of all the
    individual measurements in a distribution
  • 1. 000(zero) 8. 80,000
  • 2. 5,000 9. 100,000
  • 3. 10,000 10. 150,000
  • 4. 20,000 11. 200,000
  • 5. 40,000 12. 400,000
  • 6. 40,000 13. 10,000,000
  • 7. 40,000
  • Add together and divide by 13 11,085,000
    divide this by 13 and you get the mean of 852,
    692.31

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Measures of Central Tendency
  • Mode figure that occurs most frequently in a
    given set of data.
  • 1. 000(zero) 8. 80,000
  • 2. 5,000 9. 100,000
  • 3. 10,000 10. 150,000
  • 4. 20,000 11. 200,000
  • 5. 40,000 12. 400,000
  • 6. 40,000 13. 10,000,000
  • 7. 40,000
  • In this example it is 40,000.

26
Measures of Central Tendency
  • Median the middle of any set of figures.
  • 1. 000(zero) 8. 80,000
  • 2. 5,000 9. 100,000
  • 3. 10,000 10. 150,000
  • 4. 20,000 11. 200,000
  • 5. 40,000 12. 400,000
  • 6. 40,000 13. 10,000,000
  • 7. 40,000
  • In this example, the median would be 40,000.

27
CORRELATION
  • Correlation
  • an association or relationship between the
    occurrence of two or more events (a.k.a. a
    correlational relationship)
  • Correlation coefficient
  • a number that indicates the strength of a
    relationship between two or more events the
    closer the number is to 1.00 or 1.00, the
    greater is the strength of the relationship

28
Correlational Research
  • Another tool for the researcher
  •  1) As a first step prior to experimentation
  • 2) When causations cannot be found  3) When
    experiments cannot be conducted (for ethical or
    practical reasons)

29
Correlational Research
  • Types of correlational studies
  • 1) Observational Research
  •  e.g., class attendance and grades 2)  Survey
    Research
  •  e.g., living together and divorce rates 3)
    Archival Research
  •  e.g., violence and economics

30
Correlational Research
  • Example   Why are children aggressive?
  •  Hypothesis aggression is a learned behavior as
    a result of modeling.
  •  Test  look for associations between aggressive
    behavior and . .

31
Correlational Research
  • Interpreting Correlations
  • Scores range from -1 to 1
  • -1, negative relationship example of a
    negative   drinking in college and GPA  
  • 0, no relationshipexample of a near zero  
    hair length and GPA
  •   1, positive relationship example of a
    positive GPA and scores on SAT

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CORRELATION
  • Perfect positive correlation coefficient
  • 1.00 means that an increase in one event is
    always matched by an equal increase in a second
    event
  • Positive correlation coefficient
  • indicates that as one event tends to increase,
    the second event tends to, but does not always,
    increase
  • increases from 0.01 to 0.99 indicate a
    strengthening of the relationship between the
    occurrence of two events

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CORRELATION
  • Zero correlation
  • indicates that there is no relationship between
    the occurrence of one event and the occurrence of
    a second event
  • Negative correlation coefficient
  • indicates that as one event tends to increase,
    the second event tends to, but does not always,
    decrease
  • -0.01 to -0.99 indicates a strengthening in the
    relationship of one event increasing and the
    other decreasing

38
CORRELATION
  • Perfect negative correlation coefficient
  • -1.00 means that an increase in one event is
    always matched by an equal decrease in a second
    event
  • correlations such as 1.00 are virtually never
    found in applied psychological research

39
DECISIONS ABOUT DOING RESEARCH
  • What is the best technique for answering a
    question?
  • Questionnaires and interviews
  • Laboratory experiments
  • Standardized tests
  • Animal models

40
DECISIONS ABOUT DOING RESEARCH
  • Interview
  • technique for obtaining information by asking
    questions, ranging from open-ended to highly
    structured, about a subjects behaviors and
    attitudes, usually in a one-on-one situation
  • Questionnaire
  • technique for obtaining information by asking
    subjects to read a list of written questions and
    check off specific answers

41
DECISIONS ABOUT DOING RESEARCH
  • Laboratory experiments
  • techniques to gather information about the brain,
    genes, or behavior with the lease error and bias
    by using a controlled environment that allows
    careful observation and measurement
  • Standardized tests
  • technique to obtain information by administering
    a psychological test that has been given to
    hundreds of people and shown to reliably measure
    thought patterns, personality traits, emotions,
    or behaviors

42
DECISIONS ABOUT DOING RESEARCH
  • Animal Models
  • involves examining or manipulating some
    behavioral, genetic, or physiological factor that
    closely approximates some human problem, disease,
    or condition

43
DECISIONS ABOUT DOING RESEARCH
  • Choosing research settings
  • Naturalistic setting
  • Laboratory setting

44
DECISIONS ABOUT DOING RESEARCH
  • Naturalistic setting
  • relatively normal environment in which
    researchers gather information by observing
    individuals behaviors without attempting to
    change or control the situation
  • Laboratory setting
  • involves studying individuals under systematic
    and controlled conditions, with many of the
    real-world influences eliminated

45
ETHICS

46
APPLICATION RESEARCH CONCERNS
  • Concerns about being a subject
  • human and animal
  • Code of ethics
  • the American Psychological Association publishes
    a code of ethics and conduct for psychologists to
    follow when doing research, counseling, teaching,
    and related activities

47
APPLICATION RESEARCH ETHICS
  • Informed Consent
  • Subject must have a reasonable understanding of
    the research, voluntarily agree to take part and
    be aware of any possible harm.
  • Safety
  • Mental and Physical safety must be the top
    priority, a research subject should never be in
    danger.

48
APPLICATION RESEARCH ETHICS
  • Role of deception
  • one way that researchers control for
    participants expectations is to use bogus
    procedures or instructions that prevent
    participants from learning the experiments true
    purpose
  • Debriefed
  • If a subject is deceived they must be informed of
    the truth as soon as possible

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APPLICATION RESEARCH CONCERNS
  • Ethics of animal research
  • How many animals are used in research?
  • 18 to 22 million animals are used each year in
    biomedical research
  • Are research animals mistreated?
  • Of the millions of animals used in research, only
    a few cases of animal mistreatment have been
    confirmed.

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APPLICATION RESEARCH CONCERNS
  • Ethics of animal research
  • Is the use of animals justified?
  • researchers are currently using animals to study
    epilepsy, Alzheimers disease, fetal alcohol
    syndrome, schizophrenia, AIDS, and
    transplantation of brain tissue
  • none of which is possible with human subjects

54
APPLICATION RESEARCH CONCERNS
  • Ethics of animal research

Who checks on the use of animals in research?
  • U. S. Department of Agriculture
  • Universities hire veterinarians
  • Universities have animal subject committees

55
APPLICATION RESEARCH CONCERNS
  • Ethics of animal research
  • How do we strike a balance?
  • many experts in the scientific, medical, and
    mental health communities believe that the
    conscientious and responsible use of animals in
    research is justified and should continue

56
USE OF PLACEBOS
  • Placebo
  • intervention, such as taking a pill, receiving
    and injection, or undergoing an operation, that
    resembles medical therapy but which in fact, has
    no medical effects
  • Placebo effect
  • change in the patients illness that is
    attributable to an imagined treatment rather than
    to a medical treatment

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USE OF PLACEBOS
  • researchers believe that placebos work by
    reducing tension and distress and by creating
    powerful self-fulfilling prophecies
  • individuals think and behave as if the drug,
    actually a placebo, is effective
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