Enlightenment (Age of Reason)

1
Enlightenment (Age of Reason)

• The 18th century philosophical movement of
  intellectuals who were greatly impressed with the
  achievements of the Scientific Revolution.
• This movement occurred in Europe from about 1650
  until 1800 and it advocated the use of reason and
  individualism instead of tradition and
  established doctrine.

2
Issac Newton (1642-1727)

• English mathematician and physicist who is
  remembered for developing calculus, the law of
  gravitation, and his three laws of motion.

Isaac Newton
3
Issac Newton (1642-1727)

• Co-inventor of calculus. Discovered the law of
  Universal Gravitation. Newton's 3 laws of motion.
  Corpuscular theory of light. Law of cooling.
  Professor, Theologian, Alchemist, Warden of the
  Mint. Newton was a premature child and was very
  small at birth. His father had died before
  Newton's birth, and, when he was 3 years old, his
  mother remarried and left him in the care of his
  grandmother. He was somewhat sickly as a child,
  and since he could not join the other children in
  games he kept himself amused by building
  mechanical toys such as wooden clocks and
  sundials and a mouse-powered flour mill. He read
  a great deal and kept a journal of observations.
  Newton began his schooling in the village schools
  and later was sent to Grantham Grammar School
  where he became the top boy in the school. At
  Grantham he lodged with the local apothecary and
  eventually became engaged to the apothecary's
  stepdaughter, Miss Storey, before he went off to
  Cambridge University at the age of 19. But Newton
  became engrossed in his studies, the romance
  cooled and Miss Storey married someone else. It
  is said he kept a warm memory of this love, but
  Newton had no other recorded 'sweethearts' and
  never married. In 1661, Newton entered Trinity
  College, Cambridge as a student who earned his
  expenses by doing menial work. Not much is known
  of his college days, but his account book seems
  normal enough -- it mentions several tavern bills
  and two losses at cards. He received his B.A.
  degree in 1664, the year that the bubonic plague
  was sweeping Europe. The colleges closed for what
  turned out to be two years, so Newton returned to
  Woolsthorpe to think. Up until then Newton had
  been somewhat precocious and had been a
  successful student, but he had done nothing
  really outstanding. Now things started to happen.
  His two years at Woolsthorpe represent the
  greatest recorded achievement of a human
  intellect in a short period. In these two years,
  this 'kid' extended the binomial theorem,
  invented calculus, discovered the law of
  universal gravitation and had enough time left
  over to experimentally prove that white light is
  composed of all colors. Then he had his 25th
  birthday. If Newton had communicated these
  results and then died, his reputation would be
  almost a great as it is today. He lived for
  another 60 years and made a few additional
  contributions to the pool of knowledge, but, at
  most, these later results would have earned him a
  footnote in history. In two years he invented the
  calculus which would quickly grow into the
  largest and most important field in mathematics
  and which would first have a tremendous impact on
  physics and astronomy and more recently on fields
  of biology, economics, business and even
  political science. At the same time he discovered
  the law of universal gravitation which explains,
  on a large scale, how the universe operates.
  When the plague subsided and the schools reopened
  in 1667, Newton returned to Trinity College as a
  Fellow (professor), and 2 years later Dr. Isaac
  Barrow, Newton's teacher, resigned so Newton
  could become Lucasian Professor of Mathematics.
  He was now 26, and from here on it was mostly
  downhill, at least intellectually. Newton
  lectured on optics and calculus and physics he
  built telescopes and observed Jupiter's moons,
  and calculated orbits. But these areas became
  secondary interests. His heart was really in
  alchemy ("lead into gold," the forerunner of
  chemistry) and theology and the spiritual
  universe. He attempted to reconcile the dates of
  the Old Testament with historical dates, became
  very involved with astrology and attempted to
  contact departed "souls." In hindsight, it is
  easy to dismiss all of this as nonsense, but
  these were serious attempts of a serious man to
  understand the entire universe. It is
  unfortunate, however, that Newton devoted so
  little of the rest of his life to mathematics and
  physics. The few times he did return to these
  areas, he proved that he had not lost his genius.
  Newton's great discoveries in physics were
  finally published in 1687 as Philosophiae
  Naturalis Principia Mathematica (usually just
  called the Principia). By the late 1690s, the
  followers of Newton and Leibniz were involved in
  very heated nationalistic arguments over priority
  in the invention of calculus, and these arguments
  raged for over a century. Mostly, Newton and
  Leibniz remained above the squabbling, and the
  consensus is that each made the discoveries
  independently. Newton was the first to make the
  discoveries but he waited 20 years to publish
  them. Leibniz did not delay as long and published
  his results first. As a result of this squabble,
  British mathematicians ignored the fruitful
  developments in mathematics on the continent and
  stagnated for almost a century. In developing
  the calculus, Newton used the method of
  "fluxions" (from the Latin "flow") functions
  flowed and he considered their "rate of flow." He
  routinely dealt with "infinitesimal" (infinitely
  small quantities) and used dots above the
  variable functions to denote derivatives. The
  notations we use in calculus are primarily due to
  the other inventor of calculus, Leibniz. Newton
  and Leibniz both used an intuitive idea of
  "limit," but neither seemed to have a precise
  definition of it. Newton served in Parliament
  twice. He was elected President of the Royal
  Society and held that position for 24 years. In
  1696 he was appointed Warden of the Mint and put
  in charge of the system of coinage in the British
  Empire. In 1705 he was knighted by Queen Anne.
  Except for a few periods of severe insomnia and a
  persecution mania (perhaps due to overwork or
  mercury poisoning from his work at the Mint),
  Newton's health was excellent until the last 3
  years of his life. He died in his sleep at the
  age of 85, and was buried with full national
  honors in West Minster Abbey.

4
Principia (1687)

• Book written by Issac Newton in which he laid out
  in mathematical terms the principles of time,
  force, and motion that have guided the
  development of modern physical science.

5
John Locke (1632-1704)

• English philosopher who used the ideas of natural
  laws as it applied to government.
• He stated people were reasonable and moral, and
  that they would arrive at a cooperative and
  workable form of government.
• He also argued that people were molded by the
  experiences that came through their senses form
  the surrounding world.

John Locke
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John Locke (1632-1704)

• John Locke was born in Wrington in Somerset
  County. He attended Oxford University. In 1666,
  he met Anthony Ashley Cooper, who later became
  the first Earl of Shaftesbury. The two men
  became close friends. In 1679, the earl became
  involved in plots against the king, and suspicion
  also fell on Locke. The philosopher decided to
  leave England. In 1683, he moved to the
  Netherlands, where he met Prince William and
  Princess Mary of Orange. William and Mary became
  the rulers of England in 1689, and Locke returned
  to England as a court favorite. Until his death,
  he wrote widely on such subjects as educational
  reform, freedom of the press, and religious
  tolerance.
• Locke's major work was An Essay Concerning Human
  Understanding (1690). It describes his theory of
  how the mind functions in learning about the
  world. Locke argued against the doctrine of
  innate ideas, which stated that ideas were part
  of the mind at birth and not learned or acquired
  later from outside sources. Locke claimed that
  all ideas were placed in the mind by experience.
  He declared that there were two kinds of
  experience, outer and inner. Outer experience
  was acquired through the senses of sight, taste,
  hearing, smell, and touch, which provide
  information about the external world. Inner
  experience was acquired by thinking about the
  mental processes involved in sifting these data,
  which furnished information about the mind.
  Locke believed that the universe contained three
  kinds of things--minds, various types of bodies,
  and God. Bodies had two kinds of properties.
  One kind was mathematically measurable, such as
  length and weight, and existed in the bodies
  themselves. The second kind was qualitative,
  such as sound and color. These properties were
  not in the bodies themselves but were simply
  powers that bodies had to produce ideas of colors
  and sounds in the mind. According to Locke, a
  good life was a life of pleasure. Pleasure and
  pain were simple ideas that accompanied nearly
  all human experiences. Ethical action involved
  determining which act in a given situation would
  produce the greatest pleasure--and then
  performing that act. Locke also believed that
  God had established divine law. This law could
  be discovered by reason, and to disobey it was
  morally wrong. Locke thought that divine law and
  the pleasure principle were compatible. Locke
  believed that people by nature had certain rights
  and duties. These rights included liberty, life,
  and ownership of property. By liberty, Locke
  meant political equality. The task of any state
  was to protect people's rights. States
  inconvenience people in various ways. Therefore,
  the justification for a state's existence had to
  be found in its ability to protect human rights
  better than individuals could on their own.
  Locke declared that if a government did not
  adequately protect the rights of its citizens,
  they had the right to find other rulers.

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An Essay Concerning Human Understanding (1690)

• Book written by John Locke which describes his
  theory of how the mind functions in learning
  about the world.
• Locke argued against the doctrine of innate
  ideas, which stated that ideas were part of the
  mind at birth and not learned or acquired later
  from outside sources. Locke claimed that all
  ideas were placed in the mind by experience.

8
Two Treaties of Government (1690)

• Book written by John Locke where he believed that
  people by nature had certain rights and duties.
• These rights included liberty, life, and
  ownership of property. By liberty, Locke meant
  political equality. The task of any state was to
  protect people's rights. States inconvenience
  people in various ways. Therefore, the
  justification for a state's existence had to be
  found in its ability to protect human rights
  better than individuals could on their own.
  Locke declared that if a government did not
  adequately protect the rights of its citizens,
  they had the right to find other rulers.

9
Philosophe

• French for philosopher it applied to all
  intellectuals like writers, journalists,
  economists, and social reformers, during the
  Enlightenment.

10
Philosophe

• The philosophes were a group of French
  philosophers during the Age of Reason, a
  historical period that extended from the late
  1600's to the late 1700's. The group included
  such great philosophers as the Marquis de
  Condorcet, Denis Diderot, Claude Helvetius,
  Jean-Jacques Rousseau, and Voltaire. Generally,
  the philosophes believed in the ideal of
  progress. They wished to apply science's
  emphasis on reason to the study of people's moral
  and social life. The philosophes believed that
  knowledge could be acquired through experience.
  They wanted to separate moral doctrines from
  religious considerations, because they believed
  that moral problems could be solved
  independently. The philosophes were generally
  anti-Christian, claiming that Christianity was
  basically unreasonable and superstitious.
  Generally, they opposed the political system in
  France and argued for reforms. Thus, they became
  forerunners of, and in some cases participants
  in, the French Revolution--which lasted from 1789
  to 1799.

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Baron de Montesquieu (Charles-Louis de Secondat)
(1689-1755)

• He used the scientific method to find the natural
  laws that govern the social and political
  relationships of human beings.
• He identified three types of government and wrote
  about the separation of powers. His analysis of
  the system of checks and balances through
  separation of powers was his most lasting
  contribution to political thought.
• The translation of Montesquieus work into
  English made it available to American
  philosophes, which took his principles and worked
  them into the Untied States Constitution.

12
Baron de Montesquieu (Charles-Louis de Secondat)
(1689-1755)

• Montesquieu believed that laws underlie all
  things--human, natural, and divine. One of
  philosophy's major tasks was to discover these
  laws. It was difficult to study humanity because
  the laws governing human nature were complex.
  Yet Montesquieu believed these laws could be
  found by empirical (experimental) methods of
  investigation (see EMPIRICISM). Knowledge of the
  laws would ease the ills of society and improve
  life. Montesquieu said there were three basic
  types of government--monarchal, republican, and
  despotic. A monarchal government had limited
  power placed in a king or queen. A republican
  government was either an aristocracy or a
  democracy. In an aristocracy, only a few had
  power. In a democracy, all had it. A despotic
  government was controlled by a tyrant, who had
  absolute authority. Montesquieu believed legal
  systems should vary according to the basic type
  of government. Montesquieu supported human
  freedom and opposed tyranny. He believed that
  political liberty involved separating the
  legislative, executive, and judicial powers of
  government. He believed that liberty and respect
  for properly constituted law could exist
  together. Montesquieu, whose real name was
  Charles de Secondat, was born near Bordeaux. He
  inherited the title Baron de la Brede et de
  Montesquieu. He gained fame with his Persian
  Letters (1721), which ridiculed Parisian life and
  many French institutions. He also criticized the
  church and national governments of France.
  Montesquieu was admitted to the French Academy in
  1727. He lived in England from 1729 to 1731 and
  came to admire the British political system.

13
The Spirit of the Laws (1748)

• The major work written by Baron de Montesquieu.

Baron de Montesquieu
14
Voltaire (Francois-Marie Arouet) (1694-1778)

• An author and philosopher who is known as the
  greatest figure of the Englightenment, and the
  best known of the philosophes.
• He was a defender of free speech and wrote books
  and essays that were satires.
• I disapprove of what you say, but I will defend
  to the death your right to say it.

Voltaire
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Voltaire (Francois-Marie Arouet) (1694-1778)

• Voltaire was the pen name of Francois Marie
  Arouet, a French author and philosopher.
  Voltaire's clear style, sparkling wit, keen
  intelligence, and strong sense of justice made
  him one of France's most famous writers. Candide
  (1759), Voltaire's best-known work, is a
  brilliant philosophical tale that has been
  translated into more than 100 languages. On the
  surface, the work describes the adventures of an
  inexperienced young man as he wanders around the
  world. Philosophically, Candide is recognized as
  a complex inquiry into the nature of good and
  evil. Voltaire, the son of a lawyer, was born in
  Paris. He received an excellent education at a
  Jesuit school. He showed little inclination to
  study law, and his schooling ended at the age of
  16. He soon joined a group of sophisticated
  aristocrats who had little reverence for anything
  except wit, pleasure, and literary talent. Paris
  society sought Voltaire's company because of his
  cleverness, his remarkable ability to write
  verses, and his gift for making people laugh.
  There are several theories about the origin of
  Voltaire's pen name, which he adopted in 1718.
  The most widely accepted one is that Voltaire
  comes from an imperfect arrangement of the
  letters making up the French equivalent of Arouet
  the Younger.
• In 1717, Voltaire was imprisoned in the Bastille
  for satirical verses that he may or may not have
  written ridiculing the government. During his 11
  months in prison, he finished his tragedy Oedipe.
  The success of the play in 1718 made Voltaire
  the greatest French playwright of his time. He
  maintained this reputation--with more than 50
  plays--for the rest of his life. While in
  prison, Voltaire also worked on La Henriade, an
  epic poem about King Henry IV. This poem, written
  in the style of the Aeneid by the Roman poet
  Virgil, was published in 1723. Voltaire became
  independently wealthy in his early 30's through
  an inheritance and wise investments. He was also
  a celebrity who had three plays performed in 1725
  to help celebrate the wedding of King Louis XV.
  Royal pensions and other honors followed. But
  all this success ended abruptly in 1726 when the
  Chevalier de Rohan, a powerful young nobleman,
  scornfully asked "What is your name anyway?
  Monsieur de Voltaire or Monsieur Arouet?" His
  question implied that Voltaire was claiming to be
  a nobleman while he was in fact of common origin.
  Voltaire supposedly replied that whatever his
  name was, he was bringing it honor, which was
  more than Rohan could say for himself. This
  answer cost Voltaire a beating by Rohan's men.
  Challenged to a duel by Voltaire, Rohan had him
  thrown into the Bastille again. A few days
  later, Voltaire was allowed to choose between
  continued imprisonment and exile. Exile and
  return to France. Voltaire chose exile. From
  1726 to 1729, he lived in England, for him a land
  of political and religious freedom. There, he
  met the writers Alexander Pope and Jonathan Swift
  and was attracted to the ideas of the philosopher
  John Locke and the scientist Sir Isaac Newton.
  It has been said that Voltaire went into exile a
  poet and came back a philosopher.
• Voltaire returned to France in 1729, and
  published several works. The most important ones
  were History of Charles XII (1731) and his
  best-known play, Zaire (1732). In 1733, his
  Letters Concerning the English Nation appeared in
  England. This book appeared in France the next
  year in an unauthorized edition called
  Philosophical Letters. Voltaire's praise of
  English customs, institutions, and style of
  thought was an indirect criticism of their French
  counterparts. French authorities condemned the
  book, and Voltaire fled from Paris. Voltaire
  found a home with the Marquise du Chatelet, one
  of the most cultured and intelligent women of the
  day. From 1734 to 1749, he lived in her chateau
  at Cirey in Lorraine. During this period, he
  wrote several plays, an essay on metaphysics, two
  works on Sir Isaac Newton, and some poetry. He
  also wrote two notable philosophical tales. One
  of them, Zadig (1747), explores the problem of
  human destiny. The other, Micromegas, was
  started at Cirey and was published in 1752. In
  it, Voltaire used giant visitors from a distant
  star and from the planet Saturn to discuss the
  relative insignificance of human pretensions in
  answering religious questions. In this work,
  Voltaire also encouraged the use of human reason
  for the development of science.
• Following Madame du Chatelet's death in 1749,
  Voltaire accepted the invitation of Frederick the
  Great to settle in Berlin. After three years of
  living under the social and intellectual tyranny
  of the "Philosopher King," as Voltaire called
  him, Voltaire settled in Switzerland. He lived
  near Geneva in a chateau that he named Les
  Delices (The Delights). It is now the Voltaire
  Institute and Museum. A severe earthquake in
  Portugal in 1755 inspired Voltaire to write an
  important philosophical poem, The Lisbon
  Disaster. This work was published with his Poem
  on Natural Law in 1756. In 1759, Voltaire
  purchased an estate called Ferney on the
  French-Swiss border. He lived there until just
  before his death. In an effort to correct the
  wrongs he saw in the world, Voltaire produced a
  constant flow of books, plays, pamphlets, and
  letters. Ferney soon became the intellectual
  capital of Europe. There Voltaire wrote Candide,
  added to his Philosophical Dictionary, and
  completed his Universal History, also called
  Essay on the Manners and Spirit of Nations
  (1759-1766). He fought religious intolerance and
  aided victims of religious persecution. His
  rallying cry was "ecrasez l'infame" ("Crush the
  evil thing"), referring to religious
  superstition. Voltaire returned to Paris at the
  age of 83 and was enthusiastically received.
  There he saw his last play, Irene (1778), warmly
  applauded. But the excitement of the trip was
  too much for him, and he died in Paris. The
  Roman Catholic Church, because of much criticism
  by Voltaire, refused to allow him to be buried in
  church ground. However, his body was finally
  taken to an abbey in Champagne. In 1791,
  Voltaire's remains were transferred to the
  Pantheon in Paris, where many of France's
  greatest are buried.

16
Candide (1759)

• Voltaire's best-known work. It is a brilliant
  philosophical tale that has been translated into
  more than 100 languages.
• On the surface, the work describes the adventures
  of an inexperienced young man as he wanders
  around the world.
• Philosophically, Candide is recognized as a
  complex inquiry into the nature of good and evil.

17
Denis Diderot (1713-1784)

• A writer and author whose most famous work
  Encyclopedia (1751-1772) reflected the
  intellectual movement during the Age of Reason
  (Enlightenment).

Denis Diderot
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Denis Diderot (1713-1784)

• Diderot strongly supported experimental methods
  in philosophy and science. He believed that
  nature was in a state of constant change and no
  permanently adequate interpretation of it was
  possible. Diderot was also a philosophical
  materialist, believing that thought developed
  from the movements and changes of matter. His
  views on this subject were vague, as were his
  religious opinions. At one time, he was an
  atheist. At another time, Diderot was a deist,
  believing that God existed independently of the
  world and had no interest in it. But he later
  suggested that all of nature was God. Diderot
  was born in Langres, near Chaumont.

19
Encyclopedia (1751-1772)

• The 28 volume work of Denis Diderot that helped
  to spread Enlightenment ideas throughout Europe.
  It included all known information about the
  sciences, technology, history, government, and
  politics. It also included a number of Diderots
  revolutionary opinions.

20
Adam Smith (1723-1790)

• A Scottish economist who is known as the Father
  of Modern Economics.
• He believed that the state should not interfere
  in economic matters.
• He developed laissez-faire economic theory.

Adam Smith
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Adam Smith (1723-1790)

• Adam Smith is generally regarded as the founder
  of modern economics. Smith's major book was The
  Wealth of Nations (1776)(full title An Inquiry
  into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of
  Nations). It was the first complete work on
  political economy. The book discusses the
  relationship between freedom and order, analyzes
  economic processes, and attacks the British
  mercantile system's limits on free trade. All
  three aspects are woven together to create a
  unified social theory. The book dealt with the
  basic problem of how social order and human
  progress can be possible in a society where
  individuals follow their own self-interests.
  Smith argued that this individualism led to order
  and progress. In order to make money, people
  produce things that other people are willing to
  buy. Buyers spend money for those things that
  they need or want most. When buyers and sellers
  meet in the market, a pattern of production
  develops that results in social harmony. Smith
  said that all this would happen without any
  conscious control or direction, "as if by an
  invisible hand." Smith also believed that
  labor--not land or money--was both the source and
  the final measure of value. He said that wages
  depended on the basic needs of workers, and rent
  on the productivity of land. Profits, he said,
  were the difference between selling prices and
  the cost of labor and rent. Smith said profits
  would be used to expand production. This
  expansion would in turn create more jobs, and the
  national income would grow. Smith believed that
  free trade and a self-regulating economy would
  result in social progress. He criticized the
  British government's tariffs and other limits on
  individual freedom in trade. He preached that
  government need only preserve law and order,
  enforce justice, defend the nation, and provide
  for a few social needs that could not be met
  through the market. Smith's argument for a
  "hands off" government policy toward business,
  along with his analysis of economic forces,
  formed the basic ideas of economic liberalism.
  Smith was born in Kirkcaldy, Scotland. He
  studied at the University of Glasgow and Oxford
  University. In 1751, he became a professor at
  Glasgow. He wrote The Theory of Moral Sentiment
  (1759) there. This philosophical work gained
  Smith an appointment in 1764 as tutor of the
  young duke of Buccleuch. The tutoring took Smith
  to France, where he started writing The Wealth of
  Nations. When Smith returned to England in 1766,
  the duke's stepfather provided Smith with a
  regular income. The money enabled Smith to
  retire from teaching and devote the next 10 years
  of his life to writing. The Wealth of Nations
  went through five editions during Smith's
  lifetime. But it had little major influence on
  economic policy until the early 1800's.

22
The Wealth of Nations (1776)

• Book written by Adam Smith where he expressed his
  ideas on laissez-faire theory and free trade.

23
Cesare Beccaria (1738-1794)

• He protested the severe punishments that were
  common for criminals at that time. He argued
  that the only purpose of punishment should be to
  prevent future crime.
• Beccaria assumed that criminals had free will and
  that pleasure and pain determined their actions.
  He believed crime could be prevented by the
  certainty and speed of punishment, rather than
  its severity.
• According to Beccaria, everyone who violated a
  specific law should receive the same punishment,
  regardless of age, sex, wealth, or social
  position. In modified form, the principles of
  the classical school are the basis of criminal
  law today in the United States, Canada, and many
  other nations.

Cesare Beccaria
24
On Crimes and Punishments (1764)

• Essay written by Cesare Beccaria where he argued
  that punishments should not be exercises in
  brutality.

25
Jean-Jacques Rousseau (1712-1778)

• He represents a new generation of philosophes
  that emerged in the 1760s and is the most famous
  philosopher of the later Enlightenment.
• He believed that emotions, as well as reason,
  were important to human development. He believed
  that it was institutions and society that made
  people evil. He also believed that government
  should get its authority from the people.

Jean-Jacques Rousseau
26
Jean-Jacques Rousseau (1712-1778)

• Jean-Jacques Rousseau was a French philosopher.
  He was the most important writer of the Age of
  Reason, a period of European history that
  extended from the late 1600's to the late 1700's.
  Rousseau's philosophy helped shape the political
  events that led to the French Revolution. His
  works have influenced education, literature, and
  politics. Rousseau was born in Geneva, in what
  is now Switzerland. The Rousseau family was of
  French Protestant origin and had been living in
  Geneva for nearly 200 years. Rousseau's mother
  died as a result of giving birth to him, leaving
  the infant to be raised by his quarrelsome
  father. As the result of a fight in 1722,
  Rousseau's father was forced to flee Geneva. The
  boy's uncle then took responsibility for his
  upbringing. In 1728, Rousseau ran away from
  Geneva and began a life of wandering, trying and
  failing at many jobs. He was continually
  attracted to music. For years, Rousseau was
  undecided between careers in literature or music.
  Shortly after leaving Geneva, at the age of 15,
  Rousseau met Louise de Warens, a well-to-do
  widow. Under her influence, Rousseau joined the
  Roman Catholic Church. Although he was 12 or 13
  years younger than Madame de Warens, Rousseau
  settled down with her near Chambery in the Duchy
  of Savoy. He described the happiness of their
  relationship in his famous autobiography,
  Confessions (written 1765 or 1766-1770, published
  in 1782, 1788). However, the relationship did
  not last and Rousseau eventually left in 1740.
  In 1741 or 1742, Rousseau was in Paris seeking
  fame and fortune and hoping to establish himself
  in a musical career. His hope lay in a new
  system of musical notation that he had invented.
  He presented the project to the Academy of
  Sciences, but it aroused little interest. In
  Paris, Rousseau became friends with the
  philosophes, a group of famous writers and
  philosophers of the time. He gained the
  patronage of well-known financiers. Through
  their sponsorship, he served in Venice as
  secretary to the French ambassador in 1743 and
  1744. The turning point in Rousseau's life came
  in 1749, when he read about a contest sponsored
  by the Academy of Dijon. The academy was
  offering a prize for the best essay on the
  question Whether the revival of activity in the
  sciences and arts was contributing to moral
  purification. As he read about the contest,
  Rousseau realized the course his life would take.
  He would oppose the existing social structure,
  spending the rest of his life indicating new
  directions for social development. Rousseau
  submitted an essay to the academy. His
  "Discourse on the Sciences and the Arts" (1750 or
  1751) attacked the arts and sciences for
  corrupting humanity. He won the prize and the
  fame he had so long desired. When Rousseau
  converted to Catholicism, he lost his citizenship
  in Geneva. To regain his citizenship, he
  reconverted to Protestantism in 1754. In 1757,
  he quarreled with the philosophes, feeling they
  were persecuting him. Rousseau's last works are
  marked by emotional distress and guilt. They
  reflect his attempt to overcome a deep sense of
  inadequacy and to find an identity in a world
  that seemed to have rejected him. In three
  Dialogues, also called Rousseau, Judge of
  Jean-Jacques (written 1772-1776, published 1782),
  Rousseau tried to answer charges by his critics
  and those he believed were persecuting him. His
  final work was the beautiful and serene Reveries
  of the Solitary Stroller (written 1776-1778,
  published 1782). Rousseau also wrote poetry and
  plays in both verse and prose. His musical works
  include many essays on music, an influential
  opera called The Village Soothsayer (1752), a
  highly respected Dictionary of Music (1767), and
  a collection of folk songs entitled The
  Consolation of My Life's Miseries (1781). In
  addition, he wrote on botany, an interest he
  cherished, especially during the last years of
  his life. Rousseau criticized society in several
  essays. For example, in "Discourse on the Origin
  and Foundations of Inequality" (1755), he
  attacked society and private property as causes
  of inequality and oppression. The New Heloise
  (1761) is both a romantic novel and a work that
  strongly criticizes the false codes of morality
  Rousseau saw in society. In The Social Contract
  (1762), a landmark in the history of political
  science, Rousseau gave his views concerning
  government and the rights of citizens. In the
  novel Emile (1762),

27
Jean-Jacques Rousseau (1712-1778)

• Rousseau stated that children should be taught
  with patience and understanding. Rousseau
  recommended that the teacher appeal to the
  child's interests, and discouraged strict
  discipline and tiresome lessons. However, he
  also felt that children's thoughts and behavior
  should be controlled. Rousseau believed that
  people are not social beings by nature. He
  stated that people, living in a natural
  condition, isolated and without language, are
  kind and without motive or impulse to hurt one
  another. However, once they live together in
  society, people become evil. Society corrupts
  individuals by bringing out their inclination
  toward aggression and selfishness. Rousseau did
  not advise people to return to a natural
  condition. He thought that people could come
  closest to the advantages of that condition in a
  simple agricultural society in which desires
  could be limited, sexual and egotistical drives
  controlled, and energies directed toward
  community life. In his writings, he outlined
  institutions he believed were necessary to
  establish a democracy in which all citizens would
  participate. Rousseau believed that laws should
  express the general will of the people. Any kind
  of government could be considered legitimate,
  provided that social organization was by common
  consent. According to Rousseau, all forms of
  government would eventually tend to decline. The
  degeneration could be restrained only through the
  control of moral standards and the elimination of
  special interest groups. Robespierre and other
  leaders of the French Revolution were influenced
  by Rousseau's ideas on the state. Also, many
  Socialists and some Communists have found
  inspiration in His literary influence. Rousseau
  foreshadowed Romanticism, a movement that
  dominated the arts from the late 1700's to the
  mid-1800's. In both his writings and his
  personal life, Rousseau exemplified the spirit of
  Romanticism by valuing feeling more than reason,
  impulse and spontaneity more than
  self-discipline. Rousseau introduced true and
  passionate love to the French novel, popularized
  descriptions of nature, and created a lyrical and
  eloquent prose style. His Confessions created a
  fashion for intimate autobiographies.

28
Discourse on the Origins of the Inequality of
Mankind (1755)

• Essay written by Jean-Jacques Rousseau where he
  argued that people formed governments and laws to
  protect their private property, but the
  government relationship enslaved them.

29
The Social Contract (1762)

• The work, written by Jean-Jacques Rousseau, where
  he presented the idea of a social contract in
  which members of society agree to be governed by
  the general will, which represents what is best
  for society as a whole.
• It is a landmark in the history of political
  science Rousseau gave his views concerning
  government and the rights of citizens.

30
Social Contract

• The concept, proposed by Jean-Jacques Rousseau,
  that an entire society agrees to be governed by
  its general will, and all individuals should be
  forced to abide by the general will since it
  represents what is best for the entire community.
  
• It is an implicit agreement among people that
  results in the organization of society
  individual surrenders liberty in return for
  protection.

31
Emile (1762)

• Novel written by Jean-Jacques Rousseau where he
  argued that education should nurture, not
  restrict, childrens natural instincts.
• He stated that children should be taught with
  patience and understanding.
• Rousseau recommended that the teacher appeal to
  the child's interests, and discouraged strict
  discipline and tiresome lessons. However, he
  also felt that children's thoughts and behavior
  should be controlled.

32
Mary Wollstonecraft (1759-1797)

• She was a British author who is considered the
  founder of the European and American movement for
  womens rights.
• She argued that women were as rational as men and
  as capable of being responsible free citizens.

Mary Wollstonecraft
33
Mary Wollstonecraft (1759-1797)

• Mary Wollstonecraft was a British author who was
  best known for her book A Vindication of the
  Rights of Woman (1792). This book was one of the
  first to claim that women should have equality
  with men. Wollstonecraft said that men
  considered women morally and mentally inferior to
  themselves. She argued that women could live
  happy, creative lives if they had better
  educational opportunities. She based her book on
  the democratic principles of the French
  Revolution (1789-1799) and on her own
  experiences. Wollstonecraft was born in London.
  She educated herself by studying books at home.
  For a brief period, she and her sisters ran a
  school. From this experience, she wrote Thoughts
  on the Education of Daughters (1787). In this
  pamphlet, she criticized the cruel treatment of
  young girls that was common at the time. She
  also wrote other essays as well as stories and
  translations. In 1797, Wollstonecraft married
  William Godwin, a British political reformer.
  Their daughter, Mary Wollstonecraft Shelley,
  wrote the famous horror novel Frankenstein (1818).

Mary Wollstonecraft
34
A Vindication of the Rights of Women (1792)

• Book written by Mary Wollstonecraft.
• She identified two problems with the beliefs of
  many Enlightenment thinkers. Those who argued
  men should rule women also argued against
  government based on the arbitrary power of kings.
  Power of men over women was equally wrong. She
  also argued that because women are rational
  beings, they should have the same rights as
  menin educational, economic, and political life.

35

• The Enlightenment ideas were most known among the
  urban upper class. They spread among the
  literate elite. Literacy and the availability of
  books were increasing greatly during the 18th
  century. Many titles were aimed at the new,
  middle-class reading public, which included women
  and urban artisans. 
• Magazines for the general public developed during
  this time. The daily newspaper did as well. The
  first was printed in London in 1702.

36
Salons

• The elegant drawing rooms of great urban houses
  where, in the 18th century, writers, artists,
  artistocrats, government officials, and wealthy
  middle-class people gathered to discuss the ideas
  of the philosophes, helping to spread the ideas
  of the Enlightenment.
• One of the most famous was at the home of
  Marie-Thérése de Geoffrin in Paris.

37

• Most of the philosophes attacked the Christian
  churches, but most Europeans of the time were
  devout believers. The desire of ordinary
  Protestants for a greater depth of religious
  experience led to new religious movements.

38
John Wesley (1703-1791)

• He was the founder of Methodism.
• He had a mystical experience in which the gift
  of Gods grace assured him of salvation. He
  became a missionary to bring the glad tidings
  of salvation.
• He preached to masses in open fields in England
  an appealed most to the lower classes. His
  sermons often caused people to have conversion
  experiences.
• After Wesleys death, Methodism became a separate
  Protestant group.

John Wesley
39
John Wesley (1703-1791)

• John Wesley was a clergyman of the Church of
  England, was a founder of Methodism. He was the
  foremost leader in England of the Evangelical
  Revival, a movement in Protestant Christianity
  during the 1700's that emphasized personal faith
  and practical good works. In carrying out his
  evangelical mission, Wesley traveled about
  250,000 miles (400,000 kilometers) and preached
  over 40,000 sermons, often as many as 4 in a day.
  His concern for the poor led him to provide loan
  funds, establish homes for widows and orphans,
  extend ministries to prisons and the armed
  forces, and open free medical dispensaries.
  Early years. Wesley was born in Epworth in
  Lincolnshire. He was the 15th of 19 children
  born to Susanna Wesley and her husband, Samuel,
  an Anglican clergyman. Both parents were firmly
  committed to the Church of England, yet came from
  Nonconformist families who had separated from the
  Church of England. This background gave the
  young Wesley a deep sense of two traditions in
  English religious thought. One was the
  importance of the organized church, with its
  rules and teachings. The other was the vitality
  of Puritan inward religion, with its focus on a
  direct relationship with God. Wesley was
  admitted to Christ Church College at Oxford
  University in 1720 and was ordained a priest in
  the Church of England in 1728. He returned to
  Oxford in 1729 as a fellow of Lincoln College.
  There he became spiritual adviser to some
  students, including his brother Charles, who
  gathered in small groups to help each other with
  study, devotions, and practical good works. They
  were ridiculed by other students as "The Holy
  Club" and "Bible Moths," but the nickname that
  prevailed was "Methodists." Their practice of
  accountability in small groups for the spiritual
  life of all their members became the basic
  structure of the later Methodist movement. While
  Wesley was a missionary to Georgia from 1735 to
  1737, he was influenced by the Moravians, a
  German church that stressed personal faith and
  disciplined Christian living. Its influence on
  Wesley led to a spiritual crisis that was not
  resolved until he returned to England. In London
  on May 24, 1738, he attended a small religious
  meeting. There, according to his Journal, his
  heart was "strangely warmed" as he experienced
  the inward assurance of faith that so impressed
  him about the Moravians. Leadership of the
  Methodist societies. Wesley increasingly assumed
  a leadership role in the Evangelical Revival. In
  1739, at the invitation of George Whitefield,
  another prominent evangelist, he began to preach
  in the open air. For a number of years, he was
  joined in this activity by his brother Charles.
  Their "field preaching" became characteristic of
  Methodism, drawing large crowds. Those who
  responded to their message joined societies
  patterned on the religious societies of the
  Church of England dating back to the late 1600's.
  Wesley's genius lay in organizing the Methodist
  societies into a movement. In 1743, he drew up a
  set of General Rules, which required members to
  attend weekly "class meetings." At the meetings,
  each member was asked to give an account of his
  or her discipleship according to well-defined
  guidelines. Wesley gave considerable
  responsibility to the leaders of these classes,
  who became a crucial link in the authority he
  exercised over the movement. Wesley also adopted
  lay (unordained) preachers as his assistants and
  helpers, and in 1744 he started an annual
  conference to consult on matters of doctrine and
  practice. The minutes of these conferences,
  along with Wesley's Letters and detailed Journal,
  are perhaps the fullest record of any religious
  movement. They were published as part of a
  34-volume edition of The Works of John Wesley
  (1976-...). Wesley's evangelical message created
  controversy. It was opposed by many Anglican
  clergy as religiously fanatical and politically
  disruptive. The Calvinist wing of the
  Evangelical Revival criticized it as being too
  universal and putting too much emphasis on good
  works. Wesley wanted Methodism to remain a
  reforming movement within the Church of England,
  and resisted separation from the church
  throughout his life. The issue was forced,
  however, by the need to provide for those who
  belonged to Methodist societies in the newly
  founded United States. In 1784, Wesley ordained
  Methodist preachers for North America, a step
  that led to the formation of the Methodist
  Episcopal Church, and then of the Methodist
  Church worldwide.

40
Rococo

• An artistic style that replaced baroque in the
  1730s it was highly secular, emphasizing grace,
  charm, and gentle action.

41
Rococo

• An artistic style that replaced baroque in the
  1730s it was highly secular, emphasizing grace,
  charm, and gentle action.

42
Rococo

• Rococo is a style of art that flourished in
  western Europe from about 1700 to 1780. The term
  comes from a French word for a fanciful rock or
  shell design. It implies a refined, elegant
  feeling and style. Rococo found its fullest
  expression in France, where the leading
  representatives were the painters Francois
  Boucher, Jean Honore Fragonard, and Antoine
  Watteau. They worked primarily for royal and
  aristocratic clients. Their paintings differed
  greatly in style and subject matter from those of
  the preceding baroque period. A typical baroque
  painting was created on a heroic and grand scale,
  and usually presented Christian religious
  subjects. Rococo paintings were intimate in
  scale and delicate in manner. They often
  portrayed scenes from classical mythology.
  Rococo artists also created a new category of
  painting called the fete galante. Their
  paintings showed gatherings of elegantly dressed
  figures in parks and gardens. Outside France,
  there were other artists during this period who
  worked in a bright, lively style characteristic
  of rococo. They included Giovanni Battista
  Tiepolo in Italy and Thomas Gainsborough in
  England. The ornate and decorative style of
  rococo was also applied to architecture,
  furniture, porcelain, tapestries, and opera and
  theater scenery. In architecture, rococo reached
  its greatest splendor in the palaces,
  monasteries, and churches of southern Germany and
  Austria.

43
Johann Sebastian Bach (1685-1760)

• A German born composer who was a great organist
  and composer of the baroque music of the early
  18th century. He is famous for Mass in B Minor.

Johann Sebastian Bach
44
George Frederick Handel (1685-1759)

• He was a German-born composer of baroque music
  who is known today mainly through his musical
  compositions called oratorios. His most famous
  work was Messiah.

George Frederick Handel
45
Franz Joseph Haydn (1732-1809)

• He was an Austrian composer. He ranks among the
  most important composers to lead the development
  of instrumental and vocal music during the middle
  and late 1700's in the classical style.
• Many of his compositions helped set standards for
  musical style and taste in the late 1700's.
• His most famous works is The Creation and The
  Seasons.

Franz Joseph Haydn
46
Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart (1756-1791)

• He was an Austrian composer, is considered one of
  the greatest and most creative musical geniuses
  of all time. With Franz Joseph Haydn, he was one
  of the leading composers of the classical style
  of the late 1700's.
• Mozart died before his 36th birthday, but he
  still left more than 600 works.
• His three greatest operas were The Mariage of
  Figaro, Don Giovanni, and The Magic Flute.

Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart
47
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