OFFICE OF THE STATE FIRE MARSHAL

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OFFICE OF THE STATE FIRE MARSHAL

• Building Construction

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OBJECTIVES

• 2-9.1 Identify the basic structural
  characteristics of the following types of
  building construction (3-3.11)
• 2-9.1.1 Fire resistive (Type I)
• 2-9.1.2 Noncombustible (Type II)
• 2-9.1.3 Ordinary (Type III)
• 2-9.1.4 Heavy timber (Type IV)
• 2-9.1.5 Wood frame (Type V)

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OBJECTIVES

• 2-9.2 Identify the two basic types of light wood
  framing.
• 2-9.1 Balloon framing
• 2-9.2 Platform framing
• 2-9.3 Identify the main components of lightweight
  framing construction.
• 2-9.3.1 Footing
• 2-9.3.2 Foundation

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OBJECTIVES

• 2-9.3.3 Plate
• 2-9.3.4 Stud
• 2-9.3.5 Joist
• 2-9.3.6 Rafter
• 2-9.3.7 Sill
• 2-9.3.8 Header
• 2-9.3.9 Ridge Board
• 2-9.3.10 Eave

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OBJECTIVES

• 2-9.3.11 Fascia
• 2-9.3.12 Soffit
• 2-9.3.13 Interior finish
• 2-9.3.13.1 Plaster
• 2-9.3.13.2 Drywall
• 2-9.3.14 Exterior finish
• 2-9.3.14.1 Brick veneer
• 2-9.3.14.2 Sheathing

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OBJECTIVES

• 2-9.4 Identify the three, broadly classified,
  categories of roofs from a firefighting
  standpoint.
• 2-9.4.1 Flat roofs
• 2-9.4.2 Pitched roofs
• 2-9.4.3 Curved roofs

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OBJECTIVES

• 2-9.5 Identify structural components of large
  structural systems.
• 2-9.5.1 Beams
• 2-9.5.2 Columns
• 2-9.5.3 Arches
• 2-9.5.4 Cables
• 2-9.5.5 Trusses

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OBJECTIVES

• 2-9.6 Identify the components of truss
  construction.
• 2-9.6.1 Chords
• 2-9.6.2 Web or diagonal members
• 2-9.6.3 Gusset plate
• 2-9.7 Identify three hazards associated with
  truss and lightweight construction. (3-3.11)

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OBJECTIVES

• 2-9.7 Identify dangerous building conditions
  created by fire and fire suppression activities.
  (3-3.9, 3-3.11)
• 2-9.8 Identify the term building collapse.
  (3-3.9, 3-3.11)
• 2-9.9 Identify five indicators of building
  collapse. (3-3.9, 3-3.11)

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OBJECTIVES

• 2-9.11 Identify the effects of fire and fire
  suppression activities on the following building
  materials. (3-3.9, 3-3.11)
• 2-9.11.1 Wood
• 2-9.11.2 Masonry
• 2-9.11.3 Cast iron
• 2-9.11.4 Steel
• 2-9.11.5 Reinforced concrete
• 2-9.11.6 Gypsum wallboard
• 2-9.11.7 Glass
• 2-9.11.8 Plaster on lath

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OBJECTIVES

• 2-9.11 Identify the following terms as they
  relate to building construction (3-3.11)
• 2-9.12.1 Load bearing wall
• 2-9.12.2 Non-load-bearing wall
• 2-9.12.3 Party wall
• 2-9.12.4 Fire wall
• 2-9.12.5 Partition wall
• 2-9.12.6 Cantilever or unsupported wall
• 2-9.12.7 Parapet wall

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OBJECTIVES

• 2-9.13 Identify the effects of the following
  items in a burning building (3-3.9, 3-3.11)
• 2-9.13.1 Intense heat
• 2-9.13.2 Dense smoke
• 2-9.13.3 Large volume of water pour onto and into
  structure
• IFSTA, Essentials, 4th ed, Chapter 3
• Delmar, Firefighter Handbook, 2000, Chapter 13

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BASIC STRUCTURAL CHARACTERISTICS

• Fire Resistive (Type I)
• Structural members are noncombustible or limited
  combustible materials.
• Primary hazard contents.
• Ability to confine fire compromised by openings.

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A beam being placed on columns. The beams are
notched to accept the double Ts.
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A double T being lowered into place on the beams
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The double Ts are notched to fit onto the beams
and are held in place by their weight.
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Flammable liquids from ruptured fuel tanks can travel to lower levels through penetrations in the deck.
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A parking deck attached to an office building.
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Parking decks can be found on top of or below
occupied spaces. In this building, the first
several floors of the structure are parking deck
topped with offices.
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A stand-alone parking deck.
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Stairways in parking decks are often open. Expect
heavy smoke conditions.
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First interstate Bank Building (Los Angles ) Fire
resistive type I construction ( believe it or
not!)Photo by New York Board of Underwriters
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BASIC STRUCTURAL CHARACTERISTICS

• Noncombustible (Type II)
• Similar to fire resistive (Type I) only degree
  of fire resistance is less.
• In some cases, materials with no fire resistance
  may be used.
• Primary hazard contents
• Heat buildup, during a fire, may cause structural
  supports to fail.
• Type of roof material may contribute to fire
  extension.

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BASIC STRUCTURAL CHARACTERISTICS

• Ordinary (Type III)
• Exterior walls and structural members are
  noncombustible or limited combustible materials.
• Interior structural members completely or
  partially of wood.
• Wood used has smaller dimensions than Type IV.
• Primary hazard is fire and smoke spread through
  concealed spaces.

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BASIC STRUCTURAL CHARACTERISTICS
The same building. You can see the header courses
of brick by looking down the side. Always look at
as many sides of the building as possible to
determine construction, occupancy, and floor.

• A view of ordinary construction from the street.

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Ordinary type III ConstructionPhoto by Warren
Fuchs Brooklyn Dispatcher
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BASIC STRUCTURAL CHARACTERISTICS

• Heavy timber (Type IV)
• Exterior and interior walls and associated
  structural members are noncombustible or limited
  combustible materials.
• Other interior structural members are made of
  solid or laminated wood with no concealed spaces.
• Wood has large enough dimensions to be considered
  heavy timber.
• Primary hazard the combustible contents of the
  structural members.
• Because of the amount of heat given off by the
  structural members, the building may pose serious
  exposure protection problems.

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BASIC STRUCTURAL CHARACTERISTICS

• Wood frame (Type V)
• All walls and structural supports are made
  completely or partially of wood of dimensions
  less than heavy timber.
• Presents unlimited potential for fire spread.
• May present a serious exposure problem especially
  if exposures are of similar construction.

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The Outer Shell                                 
         
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LIGHT WOOD FRAMING

• Balloon framing
• Construction can have open channels from the
  foundation to the attic.
• Framing is usually covered with an interior
  finish of plaster or drywall.
• This balloon-frame structure can easily be
  recognized by the roofline façade. Because of the
  fire escapes on the B side , anticipate that
  there are front and rear apartments on each floor
  where there should be only one large unit. The
  floor plan will also be different from what you
  would normally find.

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The building industry calls these cross braces
firestopping. In fact, their purpose is to brace
the stud (which is a column receiving compressive
loads) at about midpoint, thus greatly increasing
its load-carrying capacity. Their firestopping
value is incidental-firestopping should cut off
the wall voids from the floor voids.
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LIGHT WOOD FRAMING

• Platform framing
• Construction has each floor constructed on its
  own platform, reducing open channels in the wall.
• Framing is usually covered with an interior
  finish of plaster or drywall.

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LIGHTWEIGHT FRAMING CONSTRUCTION

• Footing That part of the building that rests on
  the bearing soil and is wider than the foundation
  wall. Also the base for a column. It spreads
  the weight of a wall or column and presents
  settling.
• Foundation The supporting part of a wall
  usually of masonry or concrete and at least
  partially underground.

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Foundation Footings Stepped footing can support
a concrete block wall. Blocks have nominal
dimensions of 8 by 8 by 16 inches (the actual
dimensions are actually 3/8 inch smaller than
these to allow for mortar joints). They are
hollow when laid-up steel reinforcing bar called
rebar is added and the hollows in the blocks are
often filled with concrete. They lend themselves
to construction where forming concrete is
difficult or impractical.   Concrete blocks are
also used for standard foundation wall
construction. Here they are supported by a
concrete footing both are reinforced with steel
rods and the concrete blocks are filled with
grout. A concrete pier, resting on a footing, may
be used to help support beams at mid-span. Though
some older homes rest entirely on piers, this
method has been phased out in favor of stronger
foundations.
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LIGHTWEIGHT FRAMING CONSTRUCTION

• Plate The top or bottom horizontal structural
  member of a frame wall or partition.
• Stud Vertical structural uprights which make up
  the walls and partitions in a frame building.
• Joist A framing member which directly supports
  the floor.

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LIGHTWEIGHT FRAMING CONSTRUCTION

• Rafter A beam that supports a roof.
• Sill The bottom rough structural member that
  rests on the foundation or the bottom exterior
  member of a window or door or other masonry
  below.
• Head The top of a window or doorframe.

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LIGHTWEIGHT FRAMING CONSTRUCTION

• Ridge Board The horizontal timber or beam at
  the ridge of a roof, to which the upper ends of
  the rafters are attached.
• Eave The lower edge of a roof, usually
  projecting beyond the sides of a building.

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LIGHTWEIGHT FRAMING CONSTRUCTION

• Cornice A horizontal projection that crowns or
  finishes the eave of a building.
• Fascia A flat vertical board located at the
  outer face of a cornice.
• Soffit A lower horizontal surface such as the
  undersurface of eaves or cornice.

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Fascia and Soffit
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LIGHTWEIGHT FRAMING CONSTRUCTION

• Interior finish
• Plaster A fire-resistive cement material that is
  applied over lathing, which is either a wire mesh
  or a gypsum board with a fibrous paper.
• Drywall A system of interior wall finish using
  sheets of gypsum board and taped joints.

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LIGHTWEIGHT FRAMING CONSTRUCTION

• Exterior finish
• Brick veneer Single thickness of brick wall
  facing placed over frame construction or masonry
  other than brick.
• Sheathing Covering applied to the framing of a
  building to which siding is applied.

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Brick veneer
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The brick wall is connected to the wooden wall by
thin steel tabs nailed to the wall.
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ROOFS

• Flat roofs
• Pitched roofs
• Gable roofs
• Hip roofs
• Gambrel roofs
• Mansard roofs
• Shed roofs
• Butterfly roofs
• Monitor roofs
• Saw tooth roofs
• Curved roofs

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LARGE STRUCTURAL SYSTEMS

• Beams A structural member subjected to loads
  perpendicular to its length.
• Columns A vertical supporting member.
• Arches Curved structural member in which the
  interior stresses are primarily compressive.
  Arches develop inclined reactions at their
  support.
• Cables Flexible structural members in which the
  stresses in the cable are tension stresses.
• Trusses Framed structural units made of a group
  of triangles in one plane.

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TRUSS CONSTRUCTION

• Chords Top and bottom horizontal members of a
  truss.
• Web or diagonal members Vertical members between
  the chords.
• Gusset plate Plate that is used to connect the
  members of a wood or metal truss.

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Photo R275 - The bottom chord of this truss is
under a tensile (pulling) load when in place. It
consists of three pieces of wood with four gusset
plate connectors. When the gusset plate heats up,
the heat is transferred to the teeth by
conduction. The heated teeth destroy the wood
fibers in tension which were gripping the teeth.
It is called pyrolytic decomposition, burning
without flame as occurs when you burn the company
number into an axe handle.
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Photo R244 - This construction illustrates the
value of trusses. To build a conventional
building this wide would have required heavy roof
beams or bothersome interior columns.The walls
would need to be much heavier to carry the weight
of the long rafters.The truss provides clear
spans at low cost. Know your buildings and use
the thermal imager (Firefighters Radar) to
detect hidden fire.
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HAZARDS ASSOCIATED WITH TRUSS LIGHTWEIGHT
CONSTRUCTION

• Designed to support only own weight
• If one fails, a domino effect usually occurs
  until total collapse has resulted.
• Rapid failure under fire conditions
• Usually 5 to 10 minutes
• Wood ¼ inch char
• Steel 1000 degree F.

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DANGEROUS CONDITIONS CREATED BY FIRE FIRE
SUPRESSION

• Two primary types of dangerous conditions.
• Conditions that contribute to the spread and
  intensity of the fire.
• Conditions that make the building susceptible to
  collapse.

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DANGEROUS CONDITIONS CREATED BY FIRE FIRE
SUPRESSION

• Conditions that contribute to the spread and
  intensity of the fire.
• Fire loading
• Presence of large amounts of combustible
  materials in an area of a building.
• Arrangement of combustible materials in a
  building.
• Combustible furnishings and finishes
• Roof coverings
• Wooden floors and ceilings

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Patrons attempted to leave by the hallway to the
club's front door, but the exit there soon grew
choked. Most of the crowd apparently attempted to
leave through that exit, fire officials said.
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The rush to exit the front left a pile of people,
trapped in the burning building. Fire officials
estimated the number of people inside as less
than 300, the club's official capacity.
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Rescuers attempted to pull people from the front
door pile. According to authorities, most of the
bodies later found were near the front door.
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Within minutes, the building was in flames.
Firefighters fought the blaze in vain but were
able to rescue some people inside.
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DANGEROUS CONDITIONS CREATED BY FIRE FIRE
SUPRESSION

• Large open spaces
• Building collapse
• Lightweight and truss construction
• Construction, renovation and demolition

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• A trained eye would detect that this Suburban
  Hospital Bethesda MD Outpatient Center is a post
  tensioned concrete construction job and all that
  dry hard concrete is not attached to the building
  and is supported only by the fire vulnerable
  wooden falsework Smoke might obscure vision so
  the only sound precaution is for the FD to be
  aware on a daily basis of this deadly type of
  construction.

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Void Spaces
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Roof Coverings
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BUILDING COLLAPSE

• Resulting from damage to the structural system of
  the building caused by the fire or by
  firefighting operations.
• Most likely time when firefighters are killed or
  injured.
• Most likely time when R.I.T. is put into action.
• When Building Collapse is evident or possible,
  operations should be made from the corners of the
  buildings!!

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April 2004 - Ebenezer Baptist Church -
Pittsburgh, PA
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Collapse Zone

• 1 ½ times the height of the building.

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INDICATORS OF BUILDING COLLAPSE

• Cracks or separations in walls, floors, ceilings
  and roof structures.
• Evidence of existing structural instability such
  as the presence of tie rods.
• Stairs that hold the wall together
• Loose bricks, blocks or stones falling from the
  building
• Deteriorated mortar between the masonry.
• Walls that appear to be leaning in one direction
  or another

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INDICATORS OF BUILDING COLLAPSE

• Are there any of these signs on buildings in your
  town?
• Bet you there are!

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INDICATORS OF BUILDING COLLAPSE

• Structural members that appear to be distorted or
  pulling away from the walls
• Fires beneath floors that support heavy machinery
  or other extreme weight loads.
• Prolonged fire exposure to the structural
  members.
• Unusual creaks and cracking noises.

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EFFECTS OF FIRE FIRE SUPPRESSION

• Wood reaction depends on size of the wood
  component. (The smaller the size, the more
  likely to lose integrity Type IV Construction v.
  Type V Construction)
• Moisture content of wood (old v. new)
• Application of water has no adverse impact on

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(11) Lightweight floor construction will not
withstand more than a few minutes of fire
exposure and cannot support a company advancing
through the front door. A basement fire may have
to be attacked from a window or an outside
entrance. (Photo by Lazaro Acosta.)
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EFFECTS OF FIRE FIRE SUPPRESSION

• Masonry
• Minimally affected by fire (heat).
• Mortar between masonry components subject to more
  deterioration and weakening from fire.
• Rapid cooling may cause some masonry components
  such as bricks, blocks or stone to spall.
• Masonry components should be inspected after
  extinguishment to determine signs of damage.

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EFFECTS OF FIRE FIRE SUPPRESSION

• Cast Iron
• Found only in older buildings.
• Bolts and other fastening devices may fail when
  exposed to fire, permitting large sections of
  cast iron walls to fall.
• Steel
• Members elongate when heated (50 ft beam may
  elongate 4 inches when heated to 1000 degrees F.
• If ends are restrained, it will buckle or fail
  somewhere in the middle.
• Failure can be anticipated at 1000 degrees F.

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EFFECTS OF FIRE FIRE SUPPRESSION

• Reinforced concrete
• Loses strength and spalls.
• Heat may cause failure of bond between concrete
  and steel reinforcement.
• Gypsum wallboard
• Excellent heat-resistant and fire-retardant
  properties.
• Will gradually break down under fire conditions.
• Members protected by gypsum could be exposed to
  high temperatures if gypsum fails.

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EFFECTS OF FIRE FIRE SUPPRESSION

• Glass/fiberglass
• Glass does not contribute to the fire load, but
  resins used in fiberglass will.
• Heated glass may crack when hit by a fire stream.
• Plaster on lath
• Similar to gypsum
• Large sections may fall during firefighting
  operations.

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TERMS

• Load-bearing wall walls that support structural
  weight
• Non-load-bearing wall walls that do not support
  structural weight.
• Party wall load-bearing wall that supports two
  adjacent structures

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Load-Bearing WallsExterior walls that carry
ceiling, roof or upper floor loads to the
foundation are load bearing or "bearing" walls.
Internal walls that support joists at mid span
and transfer loads down to foundations are also
bearing walls. Bearing walls usually have
perpendicular joists or rafters crossing or
resting on top of them and foundations underneath
them. An exception are the end walls of a
gable-roofed house these usually run parallel to
rafters and joists but must bear the weight of
extensive wall framing. Wind and seismic loads,
which produce lateral stresses on a house, are
managed by tightly interlocking framing members.
Plywood sheathing or wood or metal crossbracing
interconnect framing members, creating a sturdy
triangular form and-together with foundation
bolts-lock walls to foundation. The roof is
protected from wind uplift by steel strapping.
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TERMS

• Fire wall separates two structures, or divides a
  structure into smaller portions to prevent the
  spread of fire.
• Partition wall non-load-bearing wall that
  divides two areas within a structure.
• Cantilever or unsupported wall freestanding
  firewall usually found in shopping centers or
  churches.
• Parapet wall low wall at the edge of a roof.

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EFFECTS IN A BURNING BUILDING

• Intense heat
• Causes access problems to firefighters during
  operations
• Contributes to fire spread
• Dense smoke
• Hampers firefighting operations
• Proper ventilation is required to ensure
• Removal of smoke
• Stability of building

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EFFECTS IN A BURNING BUILDING

• Large volume of water poured into and on the
  structure
• Compromises integrity of construction materials
• Accumulation of water on the upper floors or roof
  will add to the live load of an already weakened
  structure.