Motivation and Work Chapter 12

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Motivation and WorkChapter 12
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Do Now Think of a time you felt extremely
motivated to complete a task or accomplish a
goal. What was motivating you? Why?
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Motivation and Work

• Perspectives on Motivation
• Instincts and Evolutionary Psychology
• Drives and Incentives
• Optimum Arousal
• A Hierarchy of Motivations

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Motivation and Work

• Hunger
• The Physiology of Hunger
• The Psychology of Hunger
• Sexual Motivation
• The Physiology of Sex
• The Psychology of Sex
• Motivation to Belong
• Motivation to Work

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http//video.nytimes.com/video/2009/03/31/sports/o
thersports/1194838580097/being-aron-ralston.html

• AIM What motivates us?

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Motivation

• Motivation is a need or desire that energizes
  behavior and directs it towards a goal.
• What motivates you?

AP Photo/ Rocky Mountain News, Judy Walgren
Aran Ralston
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Perspectives on Motivation

• Four perspectives to explain motivation include
  the following

1. Instinct Theory
2. Drive-Reduction Theory
3. Arousal Theory
4. Hierarchy of Motives

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1. Instincts Evolutionary PsychologyCan you
think of instincts in humans?

• Instincts
• Complex and stereotyped behaviors
• Performed automatically
• Have fixed patterns
• Are not learned
• Example imprinting

.
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1. Instincts Evolutionary Psychology

• The early view that instincts control behavior
  has been replaced by evolutionary theory, which
  searches for the adaptive functions of behavior.

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2. Drive-Reduction Theory

• A physiological need creates an aroused tension
  state (a drive) that motivates an organism to
  satisfy the need (Clark Hull)

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2. Drive Reduction
The physiological aim of drive reduction is
homeostasis, the maintenance of a steady internal
state
Drive Reduction
Food
Empty Stomach (Food Deprived)
Stomach Full
Organism
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Drive Reduction Incentive
Where our needs push, incentives (positive or
negative stimuli) pull us in reducing our drives.
A food-deprived person who smells baking bread
feels a strong hunger drive.
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Do Now Theories of Motivation

• Review Homework Questions in Groups
• Instinct Drive-reduction theory Homeostasis
  Incentives What is Maslow's hierarchy of
  needs? Describe the four perspectives on
  motivation. Which do you agree with and why?

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Instinct/Evolutionary Theory-
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Optimum Arousal

• Human motivation aims to seek optimum levels of
  arousal
• Arousal- alertness and activation
• The Yerkes-Dodson Law states that we perform best
  at moderate levels of arousal

Harlow Primate Laboratory, University of Wisconsin
Randy Faris/ Corbis
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Hierarchy of Needs

• Abraham Maslow (1970) suggested that certain
  needs have priority over others.
• Physiological needs come before psychological
  needs

(1908-1970)
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Hierarchy of Needs
Joe Skipper/ Reuters/ Corbis
Mario Tama/ Getty Images
David Portnoy/ Getty Images for Stern
Menahem Kahana/ AFP/ Getty Images
Hurricane Survivors
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AIM How does hunger motivate us?

• What are our most basic physiological needs?

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Hunger
When do we eat?
When we are hungry.

• When are we hungry?

When there is no food in our stomach.
How do we know when our stomach is empty?
Our stomach growls and contracts. These are also
called hunger pangs.
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• Starvation Link

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The Physiology of Hunger

• Stomach contractions (pangs) send signals to the
  brain making us aware of our hunger.

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Will hunger persist without stomach pains?
Tsang (1938) removed rat stomachs, connected the
esophagus to the small intestines, and the rats
still felt hungry
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C6H12O6

• The glucose level in blood is closely maintained.
• Insulin decreases glucose in the blood, making
  us feel hungry.

Glucose Molecule
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Glucose the Brain

• Levels of glucose in the blood are monitored by
  receptors (neurons) in the stomach, liver, and
  intestines.
• They send signals to the hypothalamus

Rat Hypothalamus
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Hypothalamic Centers
The lateral hypothalamus (LH) brings on hunger
(stimulation). Destroy the LH, and the animal
has no interest in eating (due to no orexin)
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Hypothalamic Centers
The ventromedial hypothalamus (VMH) depresses
hunger (stimulation). Destroy the VMH, and the
animal eats excessively.
Richard Howard
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Do Now

• Fill in this graph
• Performance
• Arousal

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Set-Point Theory

• Manipulating the hypothalamus alters the bodys
  weight thermostat.
• Set-point Theory the hypothalamus wants to
  maintain a certain optimum body weight

If weight is lost, food intake increases and
energy expenditure decreases. If weight is
gained, the opposite takes place.
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Hypothalamus Hormones
Hormone Tissue Response
Orexin increase Hypothalamus Increases hunger
Ghrelin increase Stomach Increases hunger
Insulin increase Pancreas Increases Hunger
Leptin increase Fat cells Decreases Hunger
PPY increase Digestive tract Decreases Hunger
The hypothalamus monitors a number of hormones
that are related to hunger.
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Regulation of Thirst

• Why do we feel thirst?
• -Mouth dryness
• -Osmoreceptors in our cells
• -Hypothalamus ultimately in control

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The Psychology of Hunger

• Memory plays an important role in hunger. Due to
  difficulties with retention, amnesia patients eat
  frequently if given food (Rozin et al., 1998).

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Taste Preference Biology or Culture?

• Neophobia- the tendency to dislike foreign or
  unfamiliar foods

Richard Olsenius/ Black Star
Victor Englebert
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Biology Taste Preferences

• The preference for sweet and salty foods are
  universal

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Geographical Food Preferences

• United States
  Japan
• Japan

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Hot Cultures like Hot Spices

• Countries with hot climates use more
  bacteria-inhibiting spices in meat dishes.

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Food Preferences

• Religious values influence eating behavior
• Studies have found gender differences in food
  preferences (survey)

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Eating Disorders

• Anorexia Nervosa A condition in which a
  normal-weight person (usually an adolescent
  woman) continuously loses weight but still feels
  overweight.

Reprinted by permission of The New England
Journal of Medicine, 207, (Oct 5, 1932), 613-617.
Lisa OConnor/ Zuma/ Corbis
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Eating Disorders

• Bulimia Nervosa A disorder characterized by
  episodes of binging and purging
• Characterized by overeating, usually high-calorie
  foods, followed by vomiting, using laxatives,
  fasting, or excessive exercise.

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Obesity

A disorder characterized by being excessively
overweight.
http//www.cyberdiet.com
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Reasons for Eating Disorders

1. Sexual Abuse Childhood sexual abuse does not
   cause eating disorders.
2. Family Younger generations develop eating
   disorders when raised in families in which
   weight is an excessive concern.
3. Genetics Twin studies show that eating disorders
   are more likely to occur in identical twins
   rather than fraternal twins.

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Body Image (Women)

• Western culture tends to place more emphasis on a
  thin body image in comparison to other cultures.

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Summary
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Sexual Motivation

• Sexual motivation is natures clever way of
  making people procreate, enabling our species to
  survive.

http//www.youtube.com/watch?vMT0E72qnjro
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Kinsey Studies

• Alfred Kinsey- biology professor in the 1940s.
  http//www.youtube.com/watch?vppZwSABxeYE
• First large study on sexual practices
• Spectrum of Sexuality
• Criticisms
• -Nonrandom Sample
• -Leading Questions

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The Physiology of Sex

• Masters and Johnson (1966) describe the human
  sexual response to consist of four phases

Phase Physiological Response
Excitement Genitals become engorged with blood. Vagina expands secretes lubricant. Penis enlarges.
Plateau Excitement peaks such as breathing, pulse and blood pressure.
Orgasm Contractions all over the body. Increase in breathing, pulse blood pressure. Sexual release.
Resolution Engorged genital release blood. Male goes through refractory phase. Women resolve slower.
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Sexual Problems

• Men premature ejaculation and erectile disorder.
• Women orgasmic disorders.

Solution? 1) Behavior therapy, drugs such as
Viagra.
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Hormones and Sexual Behavior

• Sex hormones affect the development of sexual
  characteristics and (especially in animals)
  activate sexual behavior.

Male Testes Testosterone (Small amounts of estrogen)
Female Ovaries Adrenals Estrogen (Small amounts of testosterone)
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Testosterone vs. Estrogen

• Testosterone increases male sex drives.
• Female animals in heat express peak levels of
  estrogen.

Sex hormones may have milder effects on humans
than on animals.
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External Stimuli

• Men become sexually aroused when browsing through
  erotic material.
• However, women experience similar heightened
  arousal under controlled conditions.

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Imagined Stimuli

• Our imagination in our brain can influence sexual
  arousal and desire.

Sotographs/The Gamma-Liaison Network/ Getty Images
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Adolescent Sexuality

• When individuals reach adolescence, their sexual
  behavior develops. However, there are cultural
  differences.

• Sexual promiscuity in modern Western culture is
  much greater than in Arab countries and other
  Asian countries.
• Religion
• Culture
• Contraceptive Use
• 4) Media

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February 8, 2010AP Psychology
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1. For women, the addition of the hormone
testosterone is used therapeutically in order to

• A) increase facial hair.
• B) increase sexual arousal.
• C) increase aggression.
• D) nothing, this is a male hormone and not used
  with women.

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2. Viewing X-rated films effects most people by

• A) reducing interest in sex with their partners.
• B) increasing interest in sex with their
  partners.
• C) encouraging sex outside of their marriage.
• D) having no significant effect on the
  relationship.

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3. American teen-age females have less sex than
Europeans, but have greater rates of pregnancy
due to

• A) lack of sex education.
• B) greater guilt related to sexual activity.
• C) TV portrayals of unprotected sex without
  consequences.
• D) all of the above.

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How are hunger and sex different motivations?

• Hunger is in response to a NEED.
• Sex is in response to a DRIVE

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Contraception

1. Ignorance
2. Guilt Related to Sexual Activity
3. Minimal Communication
4. Alcohol Use
5. Mass Media

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Sexually Transmitted Infections
Factors that reduce sexual activity in teens.

1. High Intelligence
2. Religiosity
3. Father Presence
4. Learning Programs

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Sexual Orientation

• Sexual orientation refers to a persons
  preference for emotional and sexual relationships
  with individuals of the same sex, the other sex,
  and/or either sex.

Homosexual
Heterosexual
Bisexual
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Sexual Orientation Statistics

• In Europe and America, based on many national
  surveys, homosexuality in men is 3-4 and in
  women is 1-2.

As members of a minority, homosexuals often
struggle with their sexual orientation.
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Origins of Sexual Orientation

• Biological factors
• Brain centers
• Genetics
• Parental hormone exposure

Cynthia Johnson/ Time magazine
Homosexual parents
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Theories of Sexual Orientation

• Fraternal birth-order effect men with older
  brothers are more likely to be gay. Why?
• Gender segregation

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Animal Homosexuality

• A number of animal species are devoted to
  same-sex partners
• Examples grizzlies, gorillas, monkeys,
  flamingos, owls, penguins, rams

David Hecker/ AFP/ Getty Images
Wendell and Cass
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The Brain

• In homosexual men, the size of the anterior
  hypothalamus is smaller (LeVay, 1991) and the
  anterior commissure is larger (Allen Gorski,
  1992).
• Corpus Collasum is larger

Anterior Commissure
http//www.msu.edu
Anterior Hypothalamus
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Is there a gay gene?
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Genes Sexual Orientation

• A number of reasons suggest that homosexuality
  may be due to genetic factors.

1. Family Homosexuality seems to run in families.
2. Twin studies Homosexuality is more common in
   identical twins than fraternal twins.
3. Fruit flies Genetic engineers can genetically
   manipulate females to act like males during
   courtship and males to act like females.

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Hormones Sexual Orientation

• Prenatal hormones affect sexual orientation
  during critical periods of fetal development.

1. Animals Exposure of a fetus to testosterone
   results in females (sheep) exhibiting homosexual
   behavior.
2. Humans Exposure of a male or female fetus to
   female hormones results in an attraction to males.

Homosexual
Heterosexual male
Heterosexual female
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Sexual Orientation Biology
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Changing Attitudes
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Types of Conflict

• approach-approach conflict- 2 desirable choices
• ex having ice cream or a candy bar for dessert
• avoidance-avoidance conflict- 2 undesirable
  choices
• ex cleaning the bathroom or cleaning the
  kitchen
• approach-avoidance conflict- one event have both
  desirable and undesirable features
• ex pepperoni pizza tastes good, but it gives me
  indigestion
• multiple approach avoidance conflict- 2 or more
  choices each with a good feature and bad feature
• ex college A gave you a scholarship, but it
  doesnt have the major you want. college B is
  close to your boyfriend, but it has a lousy
  campus

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Industrial-Organizational (I/O) Psychology

• Applies psychological principles to the
  workplace.

1. Personnel Psychology Studies the principles of
   selecting and evaluating workers.
2. Organizational Psychology Studies how work
   environments and management styles influence
   worker motivation, satisfaction, and productivity.

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The Need to Belong

• Man is a social animal, (Aristotle).
  Separation from others increases our need to
  belong.
• Affiliation motive- need to be with others

http//www.youtube.com/watch?vPJvosb4UCLsfeature
related
20th Century Fox/ Dreamworks/ The Kobal Collection
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Aiding Survival
Social bonds boosted our ancestors survival
rates by

1. Protecting against predators,
2. Procuring food
3. Reproducing the next offspring.

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What motivates belongingness?

• 1. Wanting to Belong
• 2. Social Acceptance
• 3. Maintaining Relationships
• 4. Ostracism
• 5. Fortifying Health

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Motivation at Work
The healthy life, said Sigmund Freud, is filled
by love and work.
Culver Pictures
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Attitudes Towards Work
People have different attitudes toward work

1. Job Necessary way to make money.
2. Career Opportunity to advance from one position
   to another.
3. Calling Fulfilling a socially useful activity.

Flow marks immersion into ones work.
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Work and Satisfaction

• In industrialized countries work and satisfaction
  go hand-in-hand.

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The Interviewer Illusion
Interviewers are confident in their ability to
predict long-term job performance. However,
informal interviews are less informative than
standardized tests.

1. Intention vs. Habits Intensions matter, but
   long- lasting habits matter even more.
2. Successful Employees Interviewers are more
   likely to talk about those employees that turned
   out successful.
3. Presumptions about Candidates Interviewers
   presume (wrongly) that what we see (candidate) is
   what we get.
4. Preconceptions An interviewers prior knowledge
   about the candidate may affect her judgment.

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Self-discipline outdoes talent

• Self-discipline has been a better predictor of
  school performance, attendance, and graduation
  honors than intelligence scores

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Managing Well
Every leader dreams of managing in ways that
enhance peoples satisfaction, engagement, and
productivity in his or her organization.
Ezra Shaw/ Getty Images
Larry Brown offers 4-5 positive comments for
every negative comment.
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Leadership Style
Different organizational demands need different
kinds of leaders.

1. Task Leadership Involves setting standards,
   organizing work, and focusing on goals.
2. Social Leadership Involves mediating conflicts
   and building high achieving teams.

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Organizational Psychology Motivating Achievement

• Achievement motivation is defined as a desire for
  significant accomplishment.

Ken Heyman/ Woodfin Camp Associates
Thematic Apperception Test (TAT) is a measure of
achievement motivation
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Activity Write down three important reasons you
have for going to college

• Intrinsic Motivation- internal rewards for
  accomplishment (satisfaction, enjoyment)
• Extrinsic Motivation- outside rewards for
  accomplishments- (money, grades) leads to
  overjustification effect

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Social Conflict Situations

• Conflict being torn in different directions
  by opposing motives that block us from attaining
  a goal