Introduction to Maritime Transportation: Non-Indigenous Aquatic Invasive Species

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Introduction to Maritime TransportationNon-Indig
enous Aquatic Invasive Species

• Dr. Ted Grosholz
• Department of Environmental Science and Policy
• University of California, Davis

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Defining Introduced Species

• Introduced species (or non-indigenous) are
  those moved outside their normal range due to
  human activities
• Like extinction, introductions are a natural
  process, but we have increased the natural rate
  by about 106

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Defining Invasive Species

• Invasive species are those introduced species
  that cause measurable economic or ecological
  damage (most do not)
• Federal Executive Order 13112 states invasive
  species is defined as a species that is (1)
  non-native (or alien) to the ecosystem under
  consideration and (2) whose introduction causes
  or is likely to cause economic or environmental
  harm or harm to human health

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Ecological Consequences of Biological Invasions

• Biological invasions are among most important
  threats to global biodiversity, second only to
  habitat loss
• Invasive species can consume, out compete, and
  drive native species to extinction
• Invasive species can affect the local diversity
  and functioning of entire ecosystems

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Ecological Consequences of Biological Invasions

• In the U.S., 10 of all plants and animals are
  introduced
• Introduced species are a significant risk factor
  for more than 40 of listed threatened and
  endangered species in the U.S.

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Economic Consequences of Biological Invasions

• They cost the worlds economy hundreds of
  billions per year (IUCN)
• Introduced species cost the U.S. 128 billion per
  year (Pimentel et al. 2000)
• A significant portion of this includes impacts on
  fisheries, boating, coastal recreation, etc.

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Invasions in U.S. Coastal Systems

• Few if any coastal systems remain without
  introduced species
• In U.S. waters, 500 spp. of introduced species
• Great Lakes gt140 spp.
• Chesapeake Bay gt200 spp.
• San Francisco Bay gt240 spp.
• In San Francisco Bay, new species every 14 weeks

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Millions of Dollars Spent in California

• In San Francisco Bay/Delta and elsewhere in CA,
  30 million has been spent over the last two
  decades controlling aquatic weeds
• In Southern California, the cost of controlling
  the seaweed Caulerpa taxifolia was been 2.5
  million per year
• New control programs for invasive plants
  (Spartina marsh cord grass) are costing the state
  10-100 thousand per year

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Intentional Introductions

• Many species have been introduced intentionally
  for a variety of reasons
• Plants (e.g. marsh grasses) have been brought
  into to provide forage for animals or for
  restoration purposes
• Fishes (e.g. striped bass) and shellfish (e.g.
  oysters) have been introduced to create new
  fisheries
• Predators/parasites have been introduced for
  biocontrol of agricultural pests (never in a
  marine system though)

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Unintentional Introductions

• Most introduced species have been introduced
  accidentally or unintentionally
• Most of these have been brought in by transport
  vectors (ships) or as bait or seafood
• In many cases they have been accidental
  hitchhikers with aquaculture shipments (e.g.
  oysters)

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Ballast Water Release
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Ballast Water

• Ballast water is an important source of
  unintended introductions of marine species
• Water ships take on to stabilize them,
  particularly when they are unloaded
• Large commercial and military ships may contain
  over a million gallons of water up to 300 species
• Estimated that 100 million metric tons of ballast
  water with exotic plankton are released daily in
  U. S. waters

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Fouling on Ship Hulls
Underwater view of a highly fouled ship hull
showing attached fouling organisms
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Hull Fouling

• Species attached to hull or living in/on others
  are transported among harbors
• Although fewer organisms, fouling can include
  reproductive adults
• 800 million square meters of wetted surface area
  into North America per day
• In U.S., of 171 species introduced due to
  shipping, more are linked to hull fouling than
  ballast water
• In Hawaii, New Zealand and Australia, hull
  fouling may be the most important vector for
  introductions

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Possible vector for coastal NIS introduced to
North America by shipping (n171)
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Hull Fouling

• Risk of hull fouling a function of several
  factors
• Vessel speed
• Harbor residence time
• Voyage duration
• Surface area
• Last cleaning
• Areas on vessel not subject to shear (intakes,
  sea chest)
• New technologies emerging for anti-fouling paints
• Less toxic compounds (but still effective)
• Teflon coatings, organisms slough off

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Recreational Boats and Trailers

• Recreational boats and trailers are frequently
  and rapidly transported over significant
  distances
• Little regulation regarding cleaning boats,
  trailers, other exposed equipment

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Recreational Boats and Trailers

• Very likely possibility of zebra mussels invading
  California
• Several instances of live zebra mussels found on
  boats entering CA
• A matter of time

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Other Shipping Pathways for Introduced Species

• Docks, barges and oilrigs with fouling can
  introduce organisms
• Sediments, sands, gravel, or rocks with organisms
  can result in introductions
• Traps, ropes, anchors, buoys, etc. all can
  transport species to new areas
• Transport of these items can accelerate the
  movement of species along coasts from initial
  site of introduction

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Other Pathways of Introduction

• Release from home aquariums
• Escape of live seafood products
• Dumping of live bait containers and packing
  materials

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Other Pathways of Introduction

• Transfers of aquaculture products or fish stocks
• Intentional introductions to establish new
  fisheries
• Escape from backyard ornamental ponds

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Examples of Impacts

• Zebra mussels cost 100s million per year in U.S.
  to remove from water pipes, screens, intakes
• Aquatic plants (Hydrilla, Egeria, Water Hyacinth)
  and seaweed invasions (Caulerpa in So. CA) cost
  CA millions per year
• In CA, Chinese mitten crabs, European green crabs
  and other have also resulted in substantial costs

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ExampleSan Francisco Bay

• Asian Clam (Potamocorbula amurensis)
• Has eliminated seasonal cycle of planktonic
  plants that support the SF Bay foodweb
• Asian Copepods (Limnoithona tetraspina, Tortanus
  dextrilobatus)
• Replaces native copepods, not good food for
  fishes
• Introduced species may are likely contributing
  significantly to the decline of fishes/pelagic
  organisms in SF Bay (the Pelagic Organism Decline
  POD)

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ExampleSan Francisco Bay/Delta
Native Copepod
Introduced Copepod
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ExampleSan Francisco Bay/Delta
From California Dept. of Fish and Game
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Example San Diego and Orange County

• The invasive alga Caulerpa taxifolia (Med.) had
  huge impacts in Mediterranean where no control
  measures used
• In CA since 2001, it has cost more than 6
  million for its eradication
• Officially declared eradicated Feb. 2006

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ExampleSac-SJ Delta

• Chinese Mitten Crabs (Eriocheir sinensis) live in
  freshwater as juveniles then return to Bay to
  reproduce
• Mitten Crabs clogged Fish Salvage Facilities in
  1998 and nearly shut down the Tracy facility
• Could shut down irrigated agriculture statewide

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Solutions Early Detection

• Most cost-effective investment is fund a regular
  survey of high priority sites of introduction
• Early detection of an invasion can allow
  eradication just after the species has become
  established
• An annual survey of 6 high priority sites in CA
  could be accomplished cheaply saving the state
  millions

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SolutionsRapid Response

• Eradication is only possible as the result of
  early detection and a very rapid response
• A comprehensive rapid response plan for priority
  species is required for effectively dealing with
  a new invasion
• Prior agreements/MOUs outlining authorities and
  means of coordination must be in place before the
  invasion
• Public education to raise awareness about the the
  risks and costs of invasions

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Solutions Eradication

• Eradication is difficult but not impossible if
  initiated early in the invasion
• Several successful eradications in
  marine/estuarine systems
• Striped mussel (Mytilopsis sallei) in Australia
• Abalone parasite in California (Terebrasabella
  heterouncinata)
• Caulerpa taxifolia in southern California
• Brown algae (Ascophyllum nodosum) in SF Bay

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Policy Issues Ballast Water Legislation

• Federal legislation (mandatory reporting)
• NISA (1996)
• NAISA (near future)
• State legislation
• California AB 703 (1999) and AB 433 (2003)
• CA State Lands Comm. and US Coast Guard
• Requires flow through exchange or open ocean
  exchange beyond 200 nm and 2000 m depth (ships
  gt300 GRT)
• Requires reporting, ballast management plan,
  ballast water log, personnel training, etc.

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Policy Issues Ballast Water Legislation

• Future
• Alternate Ballast Water Exchange Areas (ABWEA)
• For ships coming from outside 200 nm without
  exchanging, provide alternate exchange sites
• New technologies possible for ballast treatment
• Ship based (e.g. cyclonic separation,
  deoxygenation, filtration, UV, chemicals)
• Shore based (e.g. feed to existing treatment
  systems)

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Case Study Port of Oakland Expansion

• Plans to expand the Port of Oakland
• In 2001, Center for Marine Conservation and San
  Francisco BayKeeper sued ACE, USFWS and NMFS
• Environmentalists argued that expansion would
  violate ESA and NEPA by bringing in more ballast
  water and introduced species into the bay
• The risk of increased ballast release and
  invasive species are a concern for several new or
  expanding ports along the west coast

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Case StudyThe Mothball Fleet

• Section 1158 of the Merchant Marine Act of 1986
  (46 USC App. 1158) gives the Secretary of
  Transportation the authority to sell or scrap
  obsolete vessels transferred to or acquired by
  MARAD
• Section 6 of the National Maritime Heritage Act
  of 1994 (PL 103-451) directs the Secretary of
  Transportation to dispose of vessels in the
  National Defense Reserve Fleet not assigned to
  the Ready Reserve Force
• This Suisun Fleet was considered for ship
  breaking in Newport, OR
• Concern about introducing species from SF Bay to
  Newport Bay, since ships sitting for years
  without cleaning

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Case StudyThe Mothball Fleet

• Two ships were monitored as they were moved from
  Suisun through Panama Canal to the Gulf of Mexico
  (40 days)
• Many organisms died but some (barnacles,
  hydroids) made it through the ocean-freshwater
  transition
• Concern about the movement of retired vessels
  will continue to be an important issue for MARAD

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For More Information

• Aquatic Bioinvasion Research and Policy Institute
  
• www.clr.pdx.edu/abrpi/
• West Coast Ballast
• http//ballast-outreach-ucsgep.ucdavis.edu/
• Smithsonian Marine Bioinvasions Laboratory
• http//www.serc.si.edu/labs/marine_invasions/
• Reducing the Introduction and Distribution of
  Non-Native Invasive Species (RIDNIS)
• http//www.ridnis.ucdavis.edu/