TAKS

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TAKS
SCIENCE REVIEW
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Objective 2
Biology

• Organization of Living Systems

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Chemistry connection Elements Found in Living
Things                                            
                                                  
                                                  
                                                  
                                                  
                       
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The student will demonstrate an understanding of
the organization of living systems
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• CHARACTERISTICS OF LIFE
• Specific size and shape
• Metabolism - activities of the cells that
  provide for an organism's growth, maintenance and
  repair
• Movement - Some organisms have obvious movement
  from muscular contraction (e.g. swim, fly, run).
  Some move by beating of cilia or flagella, or
  oozing like an amoeba. Others like corals and
  oysters do not move from place to place.
• Irritability - response to a stimulus (e.g. light
  or chemicals such as food)
• Growth - increase in cellular mass, and/or
  increase in number of cells
• Reproduction - formation of another organism.
  Since viruses cannot reproduce on their own
  without being inside a host cell, they are not
  regarded as living organisms.
• Adaptation - ability to adapt to an environment,
  by either seeking a more suitable environment, or
  by undergoing modifications to be better fitted
  to its present surroundings

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Living things are . . .

• Organized into cells. Grow and
  develop
• Respond to the environment.
• Use energy
  Reproduce

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Cells are organized into. . .

• Tissues are made of cells
  Organs are made
• (not )
  from layers of tissue
• Organ systems are organs Organ
  systems that work
• that work together
  together make an organism

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Reasons for Classification

• To show relationships between groups
• To provide a scientific name that is accepted and
  communicated by scientists from different
  countries
• To identify organisms accurately (e.g. poisonous
  organisms)

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Binomial Classification Scientific names

• two-part names in Latin
• first part- Genus (capitalized)
• second part- species (never capitalized)
• Scientific names are used because the same plant
  or animal in different places may have different
  common names.
• Your scientific name is- Homo sapiens

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Taxonomy-how to classify life
Species
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12 The bullfrog, Rana catesbeiana, is most
closely related to the

• F spotted chorus frog, Pseudacris clarki
• G Asian flying frog, Polypedates leucomystax
• H northern leopard frog, Rana pipiens
• J African bullfrog, Pyxicephalus adspersus

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Related in biological terms means family, genus,
species.

• F spotted chorus frog, Pseudacris clarki
• G Asian flying frog, Polypedates leucomystax
• H northern leopard frog, Rana pipiens
• J African bullfrog, Pyxicephalus adspersus

• Genus is always a capital letter, species is
  lower case.
• Most closely related would be in the same genus,
  Rana.
• ANSWER?
• H

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49 Which of these classifications is most
specific?
The taxonomy divisions from largest to smallest
are Kingdoms (5) Phylum
Class Order Family
Genus species
B- Genus

• A Family
• B Genus
• C Phylum
• D Order

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Kingdoms
Animal
Fungi
Plant
Protista
Archebacteria eubacteria
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5 Kingdoms
Plantae
Animalia
Archeabacteria
Eubacteria
Fungi
Protista
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Classification
Kingdom Phylum Class Order Family
Genus Species

• Mnemonic for Remembering the Classification
  within a Kingdom
• King Paul Cries Out For Good Soup

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Animal Kingdom
multicellularhave nucleido move
heterotrophic examples - sponge, jellyfish,
insect, fish, frog, bird, man

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Animal Kingdom
Two divisions

• Vertebrates- with backbones
• Reptiles, mammals, fish, birds
• people, whales, bears, dogs,
• cats, frogs, parrots, monkeys etc
• Invertebrates no backbones
• Insects, crustacean
• jellyfish, snails, sea urchins, lobster,
• ants, cockroaches, etc

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Vertibrates are divided into
Warm Blooded They generate internal
heat People Dogs Cats Birds Etc
Cold Blooded Do not generate internal heat (they
sit in the sun to warm up) Reptiles Snakes,
lizards Fish Amphibians Etc
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Plant Kingdom

• multicellularhave nucleido not move
  autotrophicexamples - multicellular algae,
  mosses, ferns, flowering plants (dandelions,
  roses, etc.), trees, etc

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Plant Systems

• There are 3 main plant systems
• Reproductive the flower structure
• Transport the shoot and roots and their xylem
  and phloem
• Energy the leaf and other areas of
  Photosynthesis.

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Leaf Tissue What happens where?
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6CO2 6H2O ? C6H12O6 6O2

• Photosynthesis

Carbon dioxide Plus Water Produces Glucose And
Oxygen
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Plants do photosynthesis and cellular respiration.
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Kingdom Fungi
multicellular or single cellhave
nucleimainly do not move from place to
placeheterotrophic (food is digested outside of
fungus) Made of Chitin Feed on dead things
rotting logs etcexamples - mushroom, mold,
puffball, shelf/bracket fungus, yeast, etc.
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Kingdom Protista

• 1 cellhave a true nucleus - eukaryotesome
  move (cilia, flagella, pseudopodia) others
  don'tsome are autotrophic others are
  heterotrophic examples - amoeba, diatom,
  euglena, paramecium, some algae (unicellular),
  etc

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Kingdom Monerans
1 cellno true nucleus - prokaryote (genetic
material scattered and not enclosed by a
membrane)some move (flagellum) others
don'tsome make their own food (autotrophic)
others can't make their own food
(heterotrophic)examples - bacteria, blue-green
bacteria (cyanobacteria
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Prokaryotic Cells
Prokaryotes are very simple cells they contain a
membrane (sometimes a cell wall), cytoplasm and a
strand of DNA. Prokaryotic cells do not contain
a membrane bound nucleus. Bacteria are
prokaryotes. The word "prokaryote" means
"before the nucleus"
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Bacteria
Cscope no longer uses Moneria We know classify
into two groups 1 Archeobacteria and
Eubacteria Archeo is ancient bacteria can
live in extreme enviroments 2 Eubacteria is new
bacteria Outer coat is made of different
compositions
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8 Some bacteria benefit mammals by helping with

• Kingdom Bacteria has beneficial and harmful
  members
• The best answer here is H, since digestion
  systems of mammals contain bacteria.
• Bacteria found in the respiratory system usually
  result in illness, which would trigger the
  defenses, not help them.

• F growth
• G defense
• H digestion
• J respiration

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Cells

• The building blocks of life

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Eukaryotic Cells

• Eukaryotic cells are more advanced cells.
• These cells are found in plants, animals, and
  protists
• The eukaryotic cell is composed of 4 main parts
• cell membrane - outer boundary of the cell
• cytoplasm - jelly-like fluid interior of the cell
• nucleus - the "control center" of the cell,
  contains the cell's DNA (chromosomes)
• organelles - "little organs" that carry out cell
  functions
•  

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Animal Cell
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Cell Part Function
Cell membrane Controls what enters and leaves the cell
Nuclear membrane Controls what enters and leaves the nucleus
Nucleus Control center of the cell
Chromosomes Genetic information in the nucleus
Endoplasmic Reticulum Transport system in cell
Ribosome Organelle makes proteins
Golgi Body Organelle packages proteins
Vacuole Stores water and/or waste
Lysosome Breaks down old cell parts
Mitochondria Organelle for cellular respiration provides energy
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Plant Cells
These are only in plant cells, not animal cells
or bacteria

• Chloroplasts organelle responsible for
  photosynthesis
• Cell Walls a structure outside of the membrane
  to provide support
• Large vacuoles to store extra water

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Plant Cell

• Pant cells contains a cell wall, chloroplasts,
  and a very large vacuole,
• (animal cells do not have these organelles)
• Why do plants need large vacuoles?

• ANSWER This is where food and water are stored.
  

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• 52 Compared to annual rings of trees that have
  experienced years of sufficient rainfall, the
  annual rings of trees that have experienced a dry
  period will
• F be softer
• G grow at a faster rate
• H be thinner
• J photosynthesize at a faster rate

These would indicate more water, not less
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Transporting into Cells -
Diffusion Osmosis is the diffusion of H2O

• Passive movement from an area of high
  concentration to an area of low concentration is
  diffusion.
• The diffusion of water is called osmosis.

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What is Active Transport?
 
 

• Energy is used to move selected molecules into a
  cell, even if they are at a low concentration.

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• 34 When a sea urchin egg is removed from the
• ocean and placed in freshwater, the egg swells
• and bursts. Which of these causes water to enter
  the egg?
• F Coagulation
• G Sodium pump
• H Active transport
• J Osmosis

Means to clump together Incorrect
Sodium is not being moved Incorrect
The egg would not use energy to do this since it
kills the cell.
This is the movement of water from an area of
high concentration (the fresh water) to low
concentration (inside the Salt Water Urchin Egg)
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Cellular Respiration

• C6H12O6 6O2 ? 6CO2 6H2O
• Occurs in mitochondria of all living things

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Cell Reproduction
The Cell Cycle is the life cycle of a cell It
has two parts. interphase and reproduction
Mitosis is nuclear division plus cell division,
and produces two identical daughter cells
Diploid double strand DNA Meiosis is the type
of cell division by which germ cells (eggs and
sperm) are produced. Meiosis involves a reduction
in the amount of genetic material. It creates
genetic diversity. It Produces 4 non-identical
cells Haploid -½ DNA Interphase is the process
of growing and functioning.
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Mitosis
1
3
2
4
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26 If a cat has 38 chromosomes in each of its
body cells, how many chromosomes will be in each
daughter cell after mitosis?

• F 11
• G 19
• H 38
• J 76

H
Mitosis is the normal division of any body cell,
so the chromosomes replicate exactly and then
separate into two identical cells. So the answer
is
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DNA
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Genetics How traits are inherited

• Gregor Mendel- Father of Genetics, he
  experimented with pea plants.
• Dominant traits always are visible, and are
  represented by capital letters.
• Recessive traits are hidden unless both alleles
  are the recessive one -lower case tt or rr
• At least one pair of alleles determines the trait
  in genetic inheritance.
• Homozygous both are the same TT or RR
• Heterosygous they are different Tt or Rr

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Phenotype is what you see
Phenotype refers to what is visible the
dominant trait or the recessive trait.

• How do you know the phenotype?
• LOOK!!
• Color of hair or eyes, height- etc

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Genotype actual combination of alleles (genes)

• Only 3 possibilities
• BB Homozygous Dominant
• Bb Heterozygous
• bb Homozygous recessive

You must look at inheritance patterns to find
out.
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Punnett Squares
D d D DD Dd d Dd
dd

• d d
• D Dd Dd
• d dd dd

Heterzygous Heterozygous
Heterzygous Homozygous Recessive

• D d
• D DD Dd
• D DD Dd

D D d Dd Dd d Dd
Dd
Homozygous Dominant Heterozygous
Homozygous Recessive Homozygous Dominant
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Genetic Code

• All of the information to make a new organism is
  contained in the chromosomes of the cell.
• Chromosomes are made of tightly coiled DNA or
  Deoxyribonucleic Acid.
• Chromosomes contain genes each of which codes for
  a single protein.
• There are hundreds to thousands of genes on each
  chromosome.

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Pedigree shows the Family Tree
Colorblindness Inheritance
Parents Father has Mother is a Carrier
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The Stuff of Life

• The structure of DNA is called a double helix, or
  twisted ladder
• The base Guanine always pairs to Cytosine.
  Adenine pairs to Thymine.
• Except RNA U is used instead of T
• Mutations are mistakes in the coding.

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DNA
Replication the process of copying DNA
The 4 different nitrogen bases of DNA
are Adenine, Thymine, Cytosine Guanine.
They pair to form the rungs of the ladder.
DNA is formed of nucleotides, which have 3
parts a sugar, a phosphate and a nitrogen base
make up a nucleotide.
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Transcription and Translation
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Transcription . . .

• the messenger RNA reads the DNA in the nucleus
• Then it leaves the nucleus to take the
  information to the ribosome.
• The DNA then wraps back up until next time.

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Translation . . . Code into words

• mRNA takes the code from the nucleus to the
  Ribosome
• It pairs with Transfer RNA to put Amino Acids
  into chains called proteins.
• mRNA pairs to tRNA in the ribosomes
• This protein building is called TRANSLATION.
• There is no thymine found in RNA, instead there
  is a similar compound called uracil.

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What does this chart represent?
It says codons, and has U instead of T, so it
must be mRNA.
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• 53 The table shows a comparison of some amino
  acids found in cytochrome c. The two organisms in
  the table that are most closely related are
• A Q and T B R and S
• C Q and R D Q and S

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To be closely related means the amino acid
composition should be almost the same, since that
is what the DNA is coding.

• Between Q and T, only 4 levels are the same
• Between R and S only 4 levels are the same
• Between Q and S 5 of the levels are the same, but
  
• Between Q and R 5 of the levels are the same and
  differ in the other 2 by a smaller percent.
  Answer

• Not A
• Not B
• Not D
• C

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What is the DNA base pair rule?
24 If the template of a strand of DNA is 5'
AGATGCATC 3', the complementary strand will be
F 3' TCTACGTAG 5' G 5' CTACGTAGA 3' H 3'
AGATGCATC 5' J 5' AGACGTCTA 3'
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In DNA A to T and T to A, C to G and G to C

• Base pair each letter by the above rule.
• So the answer is
• F

• 5' AGATGCATC 3
• TCTACGTAG

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38 In DNA, which of the following determines the
traits of an organism?
This is only one of the 4 nitrogen bases, it
cant code for anything by itself.

• F Amount of adenine
• G Number of sugars
• H Sequence of nitrogen
• Bases
• J Strength of hydrogen bonds

Every nitrogen base is attached to a sugar, so
this is not correct.
Correct
Hydrogen bonds strength does not change enough to
code for trait changes.
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Body Systems
For more information on body systems go
to http//www.innerbody.com/image/skelfov.html
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Homeostasis
This is the maintenance of the normal operating
conditions of an organism.

• The body must maintain a balanced state
• body temperature, pulse rate, blood
  pressure, blood sugar, urine output, digestive
  absorption, metabolism rate, growth rate and
  hormone levels

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• Integumentary System
• Skin, Nails Hair
• The skin is the largest organ in the body
  12-15 of body weight.
• mucous membranes that line the mouth, etc
• Two distinct layers occur in the skin the
  dermis and epidermis.
• for protection, temperature regulation, sensory
  reception, biochemical synthesis, and absorption.

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Skeletal System
Vertebrates have developed an internal
mineralized endoskeleton composed of bone and/or
cartilage.

• Bones are the support system structure of the
  body
• Make blood cells
• Allow movement
• Muscles are on the outside of the endoskeleton.
• Note- Sharks, and rays have skeletons composed
  entirely of cartilage

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Structural System Muscles

• 3 types of muscles
• Smooth, involuntary
• Striated, voluntary
• Cardiac, heart muscle
• Allow for movement
• Attached by tendons
• above and below joints

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17 Which structure in the upper arm
is responsible for raising the lower arm? A 1 B
2 C 3 D 4
3
1 or 2 is used to lower the arm 4 is a bone not
a muscle
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Nervous System
Consists of brain, spinal chord, nerves

• Nerve cells send and receive information
• Voluntary- you control and choose
  Involuntary- allows parts to keep functioning
  without you knowing

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Nervous System
Nerve cells have 3 parts

• Axon Sends signal
• Cell Body controls cell functions
• Dendrite Receives signal from another

Synapse space between cells
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Digestive System
Animals are heterotrophs, they must absorb
nutrients or ingest food sources. The majority
of animals, use a mouth to ingest food. .
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Circulatory System

• This system helps to connect many other systems
  as it provides the transport of substances from
  one organ to another.
• Every cell must touch a blood vessel to take in
  what it needs and get rid of waste.
• Arteries carry blood away from the heart and
  veins carry it back to the heart.
• The heart pumps the blood

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Circulatory System - 2

• The top parts of the heart receive blood
  Atrium
• The bottom two are very muscular and pump the
  blood Ventricles

Two contractions, right ventricle pumps to the
lungs, and the left ventricle pumps to the body
and brain.
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29 Nutrients from digested food move from the
digestive system directly into the
Endocine system does not transport anything. So
. . . Excretory system gets rid of waste CO2 and
H2O, not food. So . . Integumentary system
holds organs and tissues in place. So. . .

• A circulatory system
• B integumentary system
• C excretory system
• D endocrine system

The Circulatory System carries everything to
every cell, so it is . . C
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• The Respiratory System and Gas Exchange
• A supply of oxygen is required for the aerobic
  respiratory.
• There must be an exchange of gases carbon
  dioxide leaving the cell, oxygen entering.

Animals have organ systems involved in
facilitating this exchange as well as the
transport of gases .
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• Reproductive System
• The ability to reproduce one self is a
  characteristic of all living things.
• Sexual reproduction produces offspring that
  are genetically different from their parents.
• Asexual reproduction produces offspring
  genetically identical to their parent.

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• The medulla, part of the brain stem, reacts
  quickly to increased levels of CO2 in the blood
  and stimulates a response from the
• A excretory system
• B immune system
• C respiratory system
• D integumentary system

Increased respiration gets rid of excess CO2
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Immune System - 1

• Your immune system protects you from infections
  and illness
• 1st Order Non-specific includes skin, mucous
  membranes, cilia of trachea and bronchi, stomach
  acid, tears
• 2nd Order includes the inflammatory response
  (swelling, redness due to histamine release),
  fever, white blood cells such as phagocytes and
  macrophages destroying the pathogens and infected
  tissue cells.

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Bacterial Infection
Most bacteria are beneficial to living organism,
even necessary, but some are harmful. Bacterial
infections are treated with antibiotics. They can
be killed since they are alive.
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Bacteria

• Bacteria can cause illnesses too, however 90 of
  all bacteria is helpful, NOT harmful.
• Without bacteria, you would not be able to make
  or eat cheese or ice cream. Without them, you
  would be ill most of the time.
• Strep Throat and Staph infections are examples of
  bacterial infections.

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Viral Illness
Viruses are specific to their hosts. They can
only attack specific cells, and not all viruses
can pass between different species (though some
can). Rabies, for instance, can be passed from
animal to human. HIV is a virus that seems
specific to humans. The common cold is a virus
that attacks cells of the respiratory track
(hence the coughing and sneezing and sniffling).
HIV virus specifically attacks white blood
cells. Measles, mumps, colds, influenza, Cold
Sores, mononucleosis, Epstein-Barr virus are all
illnesses that are caused by a virus.
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Virus
Viruses are made of DNA and a protein coat, since
they do not actually grow, reproduce (on their
own) or carry out other life functions, they are
not considered to be living organisms. They use
other organisms cells to reproduce.
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                                         HIV
Virus attaching to the helper T-cells
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How HIV infects cells
HIV infects an immune system cell, the T Helper
Cell. Once infected, the T-Helper cell turns
into an HIV replicating cell. There are 1 million
T-cells per one milliliter of blood HIV will
slowly reduce the number of these cells until the
person develops the disease AIDS.
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HIV Infection 1 - HIV enters the host by
attaching to host receptors. It is as if the
virus has a specific key that only works on the
host cell with the right lock. 2 - The viral RNA
and core proteins are released into the cytoplasm
where reverse transcription converts the viral
RNA to DNA.. 3 - Viral DNA, now double stranded
is transported into the nucleus. In the nucleus,
the enzyme called integrase fuses it with the
host cell's normal DNA. Viral DNA can persist
within the cell's DNA for many years in a latent
state, which further complicates efforts to treat
or cure the disease. 4 - The RNAs are
transported to the cytoplasm and the golgi
apparatus where their message is used to create
viral proteins, which will become part of the
completed virus. 5 - Using the proteins assembled
from the golgi apparatus and the completed viral
RNA, the mature virus buds off from its host
cell. 6-The process of budding destroys the host
cell.
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Treating viral infections
Viruses are not alive so you cannot kill
them. (You have to treat the symptoms or prevent
replication)
Drugs such as AZT by inhibiting the function of
reverse transcript, thus preventing the virus
from converting the RNA to DNA.
Another enzyme, protease is needed to assemble
the proteins. Protease inhibitors are another
drug used to combat AIDS.
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6 Most viruses infect a specific kind of cell.
Which of the following are infected by the human
immunodeficiency virus (HIV)?

• F Helper T cells
• G Liver cells
• H GABA-receptor cells
• J Red blood cells

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Ask yourself, which cell type deals with
immunity?

• F Helper T cells
• G Liver cells
• H GABA-receptor cells
• J Red blood cells

• Answer? F
• Helper T cells.
• All the rest are body cells with specific jobs
  that do not relate to immunity.

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Cells Alive Http//web.jjay.cuny.edu/acarpi/NSC/i
ndex.htm
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Cancer

• When cells reproduce out of control tumors are
  formed. It may or may not be malignant (the type
  that spreads and kills).

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