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Social Research

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Social Research Precollected data Known a secondary analysis. Permits high quality research. Low cost. Reveals changes in variables over an extended period of time. – PowerPoint PPT presentation

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Title: Social Research


1
Chapter 2
  • Social Research

2
Chapter Outline
  • Sources of Knowledge
  • A Model for Doing Research
  • Causation and the Logic of Science
  • Quantitative Research Methods
  • Qualitative Research Methods
  • Ethics in Social Research
  • A Final Note

3
How Do We Know What We Know?
  • Four major nonscientific sources of knowledge
  • Intuition quick and ready insight not based on
    rational thought
  • Common sense refers to opinions widely held
    because they seem obvious
  • Authority someone who supposedly has special
    knowledge that not everyone has
  • Tradition knowledge because that is what those
    older than us state as fact

4
Questioning What We Know
  • Nonscientific knowledge often provides false or
    misleading information, therefore we need to
    question what we think we know.
  • We need to seek an understanding of where and how
    the information was gathered.
  • Application of the scientific method when doing
    and accepting research is very helpful.

5
A Model for Doing Research The Scientific Method
  1. Identifying the problem.
  2. Reviewing the literature.
  3. Formulating hypotheses.
  4. Developing a research design.
  5. Collecting data.
  6. Analyzing data.
  7. Stating findings and conclusions.

6
Identifying the Problem
  • Questions addressed here in the development of
    stating the problem include
  • What is the topic for investigation?
  • In what is the researcher interested in learning
    more information?
  • How will society and research be enriched from
    the information to be gathered?

7
Reviewing the Literature and Formulating
Hypotheses
  • Examine the existing literature for relevant
    theories and previous research methods and
    findings.
  • After examination of the literature, the
    sociologist states tentative but testable
    statements about the relationships he/she
    anticipates to find between variables.
  • Operational definitions are provided at this
    point as well. Therefore, abstract concepts are
    defined in simpler, observable procedures.

8
Developing a Research Design
  • Description of the procedures and/or process that
    will be used to collect and analyze the data.
  • Many refer to this as selection of a research
    method.
  • For instance, will a survey method or participant
    observation method be used?
  • Identification of the population and sample is
    important at this stage.

9
What is a Population?
  • Population all the people within the
    group/category of which the researcher is seeking
    knowledge about.
  • Sample limited number of people from the
    population.
  • It is important to select a random and stratified
    sample in order for the researcher to make sound
    generalizations from the data (see slide 33).

10
Collecting Data
  • Three basic ways (yet not limited to only three)
    of gathering data in sociological research
  • Asking people questions Survey
  • Observing behavior Participant Observation
  • Analyzing existing materials and records
    Secondary Analysis and Document Analysis

11
Analyzing Data
  • Before analyzing the data and after it is
    collected, it must also be classified or coded.
  • When looking over the data collected, the
    researcher is looking to see whether or not the
    identified hypotheses are supported.

12
Stating Findings and Conclusions
  • Regardless of whether the sample was of a large
    size or the hypotheses were supported, the
    findings of the research should be written up
    and reported.
  • The researcher will reflect on whether the
    methods used were adequate, were there
    limitations in the study, and in what ways were
    the hypotheses accepted, rejected, or modified.
  • By making the information public, it makes it
    possible for others to duplicate the research,
    conduct a slightly different study, or proceed in
    a very different direction.

13
Using the Research Model
  • Although most sociologists follow the model, they
    do not do so mechanically.
  • They may also conduct exploratory studies prior
    to stating hypotheses or before developing
    research designs.
  • They may also alter their hypotheses and research
    designs as their investigation is in process.

14
Questions for Consideration
  • What were the findings of this
    research?
  • What methods were employed in this research?
  • How can you apply any or all of the three
    sociological theoretical approaches to the data
    found in this study?

15
Science as a Source of Knowledge
  • Science is based on principles of objectivity and
    verifiability.
  • Objectivity scientists are expected to prevent
    their personal biases from influencing the
    interpretation of their results (Webers concept
    verstehen). Data is to be interpreted on the
    basis of merit.
  • Verifiability a study can be repeated by
    others. This exposes one work to critical
    analysis, retesting, and revision by colleagues.

16
Causation and Scientific Logic
  • Causation events occur in predictable,
    nonrandom ways, and one event leads to another.
  • Political scientist Leo Rosten wrote If an
    explanation relies on a single cause, it is
    surely wrong. Therefore scientists are guided by
    multiple causation.
  • Multiple Causation an event occurs as a result
    of several factors operating in combination.

17
Causation and Variables
  • Variable - a characteristic that is subject to
    change (e.g., age, education, social class).
  • Quantitative Variable a variable that can be
    measured and given numerical value (e.g.,
    individuals, groups, objects).
  • Qualitative Variable variation in kind versus
    in numerical degree (e.g., sex, marital status).

18
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19
Questions for Consideration
  • Since answers to these questions could be used to
    classify people into one of two categories, which
    category would you be in?
  • People who place a high value on education
  • People who place a low value on education
  • Can you identify other categories that could be
    qualified from these questions?

20
Other Types of Variables
  • Independent Variables variables that cause
    something to occur.
  • Dependent Variables variables which a change
    (or effect) can be observed or you expect to
    observe.
  • Independent variables usually when introduced
    cause the dependent variable to change.
  • Intervening Variables influences the
    relationship between an independent variable and
    dependent variable.

21
Correlational Relationships
  • Correlation when one variable changes another
    or several other variable changes (either
    negatively or positively).
  • Positive Correlation when both the independent
    and dependent variable(s) change in the same
    direction.
  • Negative Correlation independent and dependent
    variable(s) change in opposite directions (when
    one goes up the other goes down).

22
Positive and Negative Correlations
23
Criteria For a Cause-and-Effect Relationship
  1. Two variables must be correlated.
  2. All possible contaminating factors must be taken
    into account.
  3. A change in the independent variable must occur
    before a change in the dependent variable can
    occur.

24
Application of the Causal Relationship Criteria
  • Refer to Using the Sociological Imagination
    from the beginning of the chapter.
  • Two variables must be correlated Some
    researchers found that juvenile delinquency
    increases as church attendance declines.

25
Application of the Causal Relationship Criteria
Cont.
  1. All possible contaminating factors must be taken
    into account the negative relationship between
    church attendance and delinquency occurs because
    age is related to both church attendance and
    delinquency. We need to take all variables
    relevant to the relationship. The age variable
    reveals that the relationship between church
    attendance and delinquency is not a causal one.
    Church attendance is the contaminating factor
    here.

26
Application of the Causal Relationship Criteria
Cont.
  1. A change in the independent variable must occur
    before a change in the dependent variable can
    occur cause must occur before effect. In this
    case, it cannot be determined which occurred
    first church attendance or delinquency.
    Causality between these two variables cannot be
    established.

27
The Experiment as a Model
  • Experiments illustrate causation.
  • Experiment takes place in a laboratory in an
    attempt to eliminate all possible contaminating
    influences. This allows the researcher to
    determine the effects of an independent variable
    on a dependent variable.
  • Basic ingredients pretest, posttest, an
    experimental variable, an experimental group, and
    a control group.

28
Experiment as a Model Cont.
  • Conventional method for controlling the influence
    of contaminating variables is to select a control
    group as well as an experimental group.
  • Experimental Group group exposed to the
    experimental variable.
  • Control Group group not exposed to the
    experimental variable.

29
Experiment as a Model Cont.
  • Matching is done to make the groups comparable
    participants are matched in pairs.
  • Randomization (preferable to matching) subjects
    are assigned to the experimental or control group
    on a random (chance) basis.

30
Quantitative Research Methods
  • Quantitative research uses numerical data.
  • Such methods include survey research and
    precollected data (secondary research).
  • About 90 of the research published in major
    sociological journals is based on surveys.

31
Surveys
  • People are asked to respond to a series of
    questions by mail, email, face-to-face, and/or by
    telephone.
  • Questionnaires are written and interviews are
    questions asked by an interviewer.
  • Ideal for studying large numbers of people.
  • Representative samples are selected.
  • Include many variables.
  • Relatively precise.
  • Permit the comparison of responses.

32
Surveys Cont.
  • Random sample a sample of the population where
    every member of the population has equal
    opportunity of being selected for inclusion in
    the sample.
  • Stratified random sample population is divided
    into categories such as sex, age, race subjects
    are then selected randomly from each category.
    This is to ensure the proportion of persons in a
    given category reflects the population at large.

33
Survey Questions
  • Close-ended Questions limited, predetermined
    set of answers are provided (i.e., multiple
    choice). May fail to elicit the participants
    underlying attitudes and opinions.
  • Open-ended Questions asks the respondent to
    answer in his or her own words. Not always easy
    to quantify.
  • Double-barreled Questions posing more than one
    question, therefore confusing the data and/or the
    respondent.

34
Precollected data
  • Known a secondary analysis.
  • Permits high quality research.
  • Low cost.
  • Reveals changes in variables over an extended
    period of time.
  • Sources include government reports, company
    records, voting records, prison records, and
    reports from research done by others.

35
Precollected Data Advantages Disadvantages
  • Advantages
  • Permit the study of issue over time.
  • Researcher cannot influence the answers.
  • Disadvantages
  • Existing information may not exactly suit current
    researchers needs.
  • People who originally collected the data may have
    been biased.
  • May be too old to be valid.

36
Qualitative Research Methods
  • Qualitative research methods include field
    research and the subjective approach.
  • Qualitative research relies heavily on
    descriptive data.

37
Qualitative Research Methods Cont.
  • Field research investigates aspects of social
    life that cannot be measured quantitatively and
    that are best understood within a natural
    setting. Assumes findings in one case can be
    generalized to similar situations.
  • Case study thorough investigation of a single
    group, incident, or community. Accomplished
    primarily through intensive observation,
    information obtained from informants, and
    informal interviews.

38
Qualitative Research Methods Cont.
  • Participant observation researcher becomes a
    member of the group being studied (as in the
    video about the homeless in NY).
  • Classic participant observation studies
  • Elliott Liebow Street Corner Society
  • John Howard Griffin Black Like Me

39
Advantages of Field Studies
  • Field studies can produce a depth and breadth of
    understanding unattainable with quantitative
    methods.
  • Can reveal insights from the people involved.
  • Valuable where survey research methods would be
    either impossible or biased.

40
Disadvantages of Field Studies
  • Findings from one case may not be generalizable
    to similar situations.
  • Possibility of bias of field researcher
    researcher often has to rely on personal judgment
    and interpretation.
  • Lack of objectivity and standardized research
    procedures makes it difficult for other
    researchers to replicate.

41
Subjective Approach
  • Subjective approach studies an aspect of human
    social behavior by ascertaining the
    interpretations of the participants themselves.
  • A prominent example of this approach is
    ethnomethodology, which attempts to uncover the
    taken-for-granted social routines.

42
Ethnomethodology
  • the study of the processes people develop and
    use in understanding the routine behaviors
    expected of themselves and others in everyday
    life.
  • Ethnomethodologists assume that people share the
    meanings that underlie much of their everyday
    behavior.

43
Ethnomethodology Cont.
  • Harold Garfinkel is a prominent advocate of
    ethnomethodology.
  • Garfinkel believes the best way to understand
    peoples construction of social reality is to
    deprive them momentarily of their mental maps of
    daily routines upsetting the apple cart.
  • Ethnomethodologists can learn by observing the
    process of reconstruction.

44
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45
Focus on Theoretical Perspectives
46
Ethics and Sociological Research
  • Sociologists are committed to
  • Objectivity
  • Highest technical research standards
  • Accurate reporting of methods and
    findings
  • Protection of the rights, privacy, integrity,
    dignity, and autonomy of the subjects of their
    research.

47
Ethics in Sociological Research Cont.
  • The code is concerned with maximizing the
    benefits of sociology to society and minimizing
    the harm that sociological work might create.
  • Several eminent social scientists have been
    criticized for conducting research that many
    scientists consider unethical. Subjects were
    placed in stressful situations without being
    informed of the true nature of the experiment
    Milgram 1963, 1965, 1974 Zimbardo et al 1981

48
ASA Code of Ethics
  • Link to the American Sociological Association
    Code of Ethics
  • http//www.asanet.org/galleries/default-file/Code
    20of20Ethics.pdf

49
Sociology You
  • As a consumer of information, there are some easy
    steps you can follow that will make you a savvy
    consumer of information
  • Be Skeptical be suspicious of what you read or
    hear
  • Consider the Information Source
  • Do Not Mistake Correlations for Causation

50
A Final Note
  • To help ensure ones study produces knowledge
    that is superior to that yielded by intuition,
    common sense, authority, or tradition, a
    researcher must pay careful attention to the
    quality of measurement.

51
Reliability
  • a measurement technique that yields consistent
    results on repeated application.
  • Reliability is tested by repeated administration
    of the technique.
  • Problem of reliability is an issue in qualitative
    research due to the difficulty of repeatability.
  • Although reliable, it may not produce sound
    results.

52
Validity
  • exists when a measurement technique actually
    measures what it is designed to measure.

53
Self-corrective Nature of Research
  • It is partially through replication that
    scientific knowledge accumulates and changes over
    time.
  • A major goal of scientific research is to
    generate knowledge that is more reliable than can
    be obtained from such nonscientific sources as
    intuition, common sense, authority, and
    tradition.
  • Through efforts to be objective and replicable,
    researchers attempt to portray reality as
    accurately as possible.

54
Questions for Consideration
  • Do you think that a selected sample of three
    thousand individuals could yield an accurate
    picture of leisure habits of Americans? Why or
    why not?
  • Pretend you are a sociologist studying the
    relationship between the receipt of welfare
    payments and commitment to working. Describe the
    research method you would select, and discuss why
    it is the most appropriate to this topic.
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