Title: Learning Styles
1Learning Styles
- Nanda Mitra-Itle
- Indiana University of Pennsylvania
2Discussion Points
- Think-Pair-Share
- Brief learning styles inventory
- Whats hot in education
- Agree or Disagree
- What are learning styles
- Learning styles assessments
- Levels of research
- Valid or not valid
- Debate
- What should I do now
- Questions
3Questions
- I heard one of my classmates say the other day
that they didn't care if there was no empirical
evidence for learning styles... they know that
they are a visual learner. This made me think
about my own "learning style" (if it exists) and
the components that go into/are required for me
to truly learn something. Anecdotally, it seems
that many of us as individuals and not school
psychologists, recognize that there are methods
of learning that are more effective for us than
others. I just wondered if others recognize a
preferred method of learning within themselves?
(Amy)
4Whats my learning style?Think-pair-share
- How do you normally study for tests, particularly
in subjects that are difficult for you (i.e.
physiology, music theory, etc)? - Think back to a class (Elementary, MS HS or
undergrad) where you learned a lot. Perhaps even
changed your life in some way. How was it
conducted? What about that class had such an
impact on you?
5Whats my learning style?Think-pair-share
E
I
- Act first, think/reflect later
- Feel deprived when cutoff from interaction with
the outside world - Usually open to and motivated by outside world of
people and things - Enjoy wide variety and change in people
relationships
- Think/reflect first, then Act
- Regularly require an amount of "private time" to
recharge batteries - Motivated internally, mind is sometimes so active
it is "closed" to outside world - Prefer one-to-one communication and relationships
6Whats my learning style?Think-pair-share
S
N
- Mentally live in the Now, attending to present
opportunities - Using common sense and creating practical
solutions is automatic-instinctual - Memory recall is rich in detail of facts and past
events - Best improvise from past experience
- Like clear and concrete information dislike
guessing when facts are "fuzzy"
- Mentally live in the Future, attending to future
possibilities - Using imagination and creating/inventing new
possibilities is automatic-instinctual - Memory recall emphasizes patterns, contexts, and
connections - Best improvise from theoretical understanding
- Comfortable with ambiguous, fuzzy data and with
guessing its meaning
http//www.personalitypathways.com/type_inventory.
html
7Whats my learning style?Think-pair-share
T
F
- Instinctively search for facts and logic in a
decision situation. - Naturally notices tasks and work to be
accomplished. - Easily able to provide an objective and critical
analysis. - Accept conflict as a natural, normal part of
relationships with people
- Instinctively employ personal feelings and impact
on people in decision situations - Naturally sensitive to people needs and
reactions. - Naturally seek consensus and popular opinions.
- Unsettled by conflict have almost a toxic
reaction to disharmony.
http//www.personalitypathways.com/type_inventory.
html
8Whats my learning style?Think-pair-share
P
J
- Comfortable moving into action without a plan
plan on-the-go. - Like to multitask, have variety, mix work and
play. - Naturally tolerant of time pressure work best
close to the deadlines. - Instinctively avoid commitments which interfere
with flexibility, freedom and variety
- Plan many of the details in advance before moving
into action. - Focus on task-related action complete meaningful
segments before moving on. - Work best and avoid stress when keep ahead of
deadlines. - Naturally use targets, dates and standard
routines to manage life.
Write your 4 Letter Personality Code
http//www.personalitypathways.com/type_inventory.
html
9Whats my learning style?Think-pair-share
- Do I have patterns to the type of materials I
enjoy? - Do I have a preference for a particular
study/learning style? Teaching style? - What learning style would I be?
10Whats my learning style?Think-pair-share
- Students are not failing because of the
curriculum. Students can learn almost any subject
matter when they are taught with methods and
approaches responsive to their learning styles
strengths (Dun cited by Ellis, 2001). - We sometimes pretend something is true not
because theres evidence for it but because we
want it to be true (Sagan cited by Ellis,
2001).
Thoughts?
11Whats hot in education now?
12Whats hot in education now
- Differentiation
- Learning Focused Schools
- Grouping (I.e. ability, cooperative, interest,
etc) - IEP/GIEPs
- Distance Learning
- Specialized curriculum
- Research based programs Tier I or II.
- Increasing student achievement
13Whats hot in education now
- What do all these have in common?
- Individualization of content to increase student
achievement or maximize potential. - Are these the answers to meeting accountability
standards for at risk students? (Anderson, 2007)
14Learning Styles
- Agree or Disagree
- Each us receives and processes information
differently? - Teachers should make every attempt to know how
students learn best? - Intelligence and ability are equal but
differentially distributed among individuals? - Typical school assignments tend to discriminate
in favor or against certain learners? - Style based instruction increases learning?
- Any given style is not superior to another?
- Global (field dependent) intuitive learners tend
to score lower on tests of analytical abilities
(considered basic to ones intelligence as
measured by IQ). Are they less intelligent than
analytical thinkers? - (Ellis, 2001)
15Learning Styles
- Agree or Disagree
- It (learning style) has failed to distinguish
among personality, ability, environment and other
variables, leading to confusion over the very
meaning of the construct? (Sternberg cited by
Ellis, 2001) - Learning style is preference rather than ability?
- This could lead teachers quickly into a
labyrinthine world of diagnosis in the search for
style? - Learning Styles are more elements that affect a
persons ability to learn than ways of learning
themselves? - Learning styles is an idea conjured as an excuse
for the lack of achievement of students? - (Ellis, 2001)
16What are Learning Styles?
17Learning Styles
- Premise underlying popularity?
- For all students to receive an equitable
education does not mean that they all receive the
same education it means that they all are taught
in ways that promote their individual
opportunities to learn (Alder, 2000). - This premise leads to conclusion that teachers
must match learning styles, change curriculum to
make it fit, adaptive skill levels for student,
etc(Alder, 2000). - Each person has a combination of modality
strengths formed by the interaction between
individual and environmental characteristics.
These modalities lead to styles of how we think,
learn and communicate (Ellis,2001)
18Learning Styles
- How defined?
- characteristic cognitive, affective and
psychological behaviors that serve as relatively
stable indicators of how learners perceive,
interact with, and respond to the learning
environment (Keefe 1979 cited by Johnson
Johnson 2006) - ..combination of various biological and
experiential variables that contribute to
learning (Rochford, 2003 cited by Johnson
Johnson 2006)
19Learning Styles
- How defined cont
- cognitive style that a person manifests when
confronted with a learning task, and specifically
as a predisposition to use a particular learning
strategy irrespective of learning task
differences (Schmeck, 1983 cited by Frisby,
1993) - stable attitudes, preferences, or habitual
strategies determining a persons typical modes of
perceiving, remembering, thinking and problem
solving (Messick, 1976 cited by Frisby, 1993)
20Learning Styles
- How defined cont
- Learning styles is that consistent pattern of
behavior and performance by which an individual
approaches educational experiencescomposite of
characteristics cognitive, affective, and
physiological behaviors that serve as relatively
stable indicators of how a learner perceives,
interacts with and responds to the learning
environment. It is formed in the deep structure
of neural organization and personality (that)
molds and is molded by human development and the
cultural experiences of home, school and
society. (National Task Force on Learning
Styles and Brain Behavior as cited by Ellis,
2001)
21Learning Styles
- Individuals way of processing information using
one of several categories cognition-centered,
personality-centered, activity-centered, and
teaching styles.
(Sternberg as cited by Ellis, 2001)
22Learning Styles
- Areas
- Cognition-perceiving, finding out, getting
information. - Personality (Conceptualization)-thinking, forming
ideas, processing memory. - Activity
- Teaching
- Affective-feelings emotional responses, values,
judgments - (Ellis, 2001)
23Learning styles assessments?
24Question
- It seems that Sternberg's theory of thinking
styles is very closely aligned with Gardener's
multiple intelligences theory. If we assessed
students using this theory do you think we would
find evidence for the treatment x aptitude
interaction that we are always looking for? (Joie)
25Learning Styles (Learning Styles Resources Cite
http//www.calstatela.edu/faculty/jshindl/ls/Garde
ner.htm)
- Measurement Instruments Myers-Briggs
- Uses the 3 Jungian dimensions -
Extraversion-Introversion, Sensing-Intuition
(preferring the concrete or the abstract),
Thinking-Feeling (preferring logic or values),
plus one created by Isabel Briggs -
Judging-Perceiving (being organized or flexible
and easygoing). - Numerous studies have provided evidence of its
validity. The Manual for Type sites hundreds of
studies that demonstrate its psychometric
soundness. However, while it has been revised
many times, the very nature of a self report
psychological inventory includes limitations with
reliability. However, theoretically any
test-taker should have an organic type that is
stable over a lifetime, and once they discover
that type they should be able to reliably
interpret the information related to their type. - It is the most widely used inventory in and out
of education and has been translated into several
languages. More research has been conducted on
the MBTI than all of the other inventories
combined.
26Learning Styles (Learning Styles Resources Cite
http//www.calstatela.edu/faculty/jshindl/ls/Garde
ner.htm)
- Measurement Instruments Howard Gardner
- Identifies seven intelligences
Logical/mathematical, Visual/spatial,
Bodily/kinesthetic, Musical, Linguistic,
Interpersonal, and Intrapersonal. - There appears to be no apparent evidence of the
validity or reliability of this particular
instrument and Gardner himself does not claim MI
to be a learning styles theory or that there is
any reliable means to determining the type of a
person. - He just offers the theory that there are more
types of intelligence than what has been
historically considered. - The MIDAS appears to be the only instrument
endorsed by Gardner. It has a version for teens
aged 15-19 and one for adults/college students
over 20 years of age.
27Learning Styles (Learning Styles Resources Cite
http//www.calstatela.edu/faculty/jshindl/ls/Garde
ner.htm)
- Measurement Instruments Kolb
- Identifies 2 dimensions Reflective vs.
Experiential and Concrete vs. Abstract. The
result is four type combinations Converging
(prefer to learn by solving problems and doing
technical tasks, good a finding practical uses
for ideas and theories), Accommodating (hands-on,
people-oriented, relies on gut feeling more than
logical analysis), Diverging (imaginative and
sensitive, prefers to learn by observing,
brainstorming and gathering information, good at
viewing concrete situations from many points of
view) and Assimilating (prefers to learn by
putting information into concise logical order).
- Although the Kolb model has been popular and the
subject of many studies, some scholars question
the models validity, primarily because the scale
asks respondents to rank rather than rate items
(see, for example, Hayes Allinson, 1997, and
Curry, 1987). The scale is short (12 items) and
self-scored.
28Kolbs learning styles
29Learning Styles (Learning Styles Resources Cite
http//www.calstatela.edu/faculty/jshindl/ls/Garde
ner.htm)
- Measurement Instruments Dun and Dun-Perceptual
modality preference survey - Characterized by a multitude of learning style
dimensions, including Immediate Environment (with
subscales for Noise Level, Light, Temperature,
Design formal or informal learning environment,
Emotionality, Motivation, Persistence,
Responsibility, and Structure need for external
structure), Sociological Needs (with subscales
for Learning Alone/Peer Oriented, Authority
Figures Present, and Learn in Several Ways), and
Physical Needs (with subscales for Auditory,
Visual, Tactile, Kinesthetic, Requires Intake,
Evening-Morning/Late Morning/Afternoon, and Needs
Mobility). - While the model has some content validity, it is
limited in that it does not really deal with
psychological dimensions of learning. As a result
it lacks an organic basis and therefore stability
of type. This also creates a limitation in how
it can be used to make educational choices or
determine student needs or aptitudes. - This model has been used in countless studies,
and some feel that it has been well validated
(Lewthwaite Dunham, 1999 Curry, 1987 Dunn
Griggs, 1995), but others strongly criticize the
model as unvalidated and lacking an underlying
theory (Bonham, 1988 Kavale, Hirschoren,
Forness, 1998 Kaiser, 1998). Another concern is
that the instrument has so many scales (21) that
it might be difficult for students and faculty to
assimilate them all and see the forest for the
trees, drawing an overall picture of learning
style.
30Learning Styles (Felder Spurlin, 2005)
- Measurement Instruments Index of Learning Styles
(ILS) - Sensing (concrete thinker, practical, oriented
towards facts and procedures) or Intuitive
(abstract thinker, innovative, oriented toward
theories and underlying meaning) - Visual (diagrams, flow charts, etc) or Verbal
(written/spoken explanations) - Active (learn by trying out, enjoy working in
groups) or Reflective (learning by thinking
things through, working alone or with a single
partner). - Sequential (linear thinking process, learn in
small incremental steps) or Global (holistic
thinking process, learn in large leaps)
31Learning Styles(Felder Spurlin, 2005)
- Felder-Silverman model adds several qualifying
statements before using their Index of Learning
Styles (ILS) assessment instrument - Learning styles dimensions are continua not
categories. - Profiles suggest behavioral tendencies not
infallible predictors - Preferences are not reliable indicators of
strength/weakness - Affected by students educational experiences
- Point is not to ID, label and modify.
- Some validity and reliability
32Learning Styles (Learning Styles Resources Cite
http//www.calstatela.edu/faculty/jshindl/ls/Garde
ner.htm)
- Measurement Instruments Abiator/Modalities
- The Abiator site is one of many that incorporates
three learning style dimensions/modalities
Visual, Auditory, and Tactile/Kinesthetic. There
is no apparent evidence of reliability or
validity. Because these instruments address
sensory perceptions, however, it makes intuitive
sense and therefore has some face validity.
33Learning Styles (Learning Styles Resources Cite
http//www.calstatela.edu/faculty/jshindl/ls/Garde
ner.htm)
- Measurement Instruments Field
Dependence/Independence - Identifies two cognitive styles field dependent
and field independent. This is one of the rare
learning styles instruments that has been
reasonably well validated the field
dependence/field independence model has
successfully predicted academic performance in a
number of studies (Hayes Allinson, 1997
Thompson et al, 1979 Wilson, 1998). (Field
independent students are more likely than field
dependent students to succeed academically.) - Unlike many of the other inventories and
theories, these dimensions are entirely distinct
and separate from the Jungian dimensions. So they
do not have any relation to introversion-extrovers
ion, concreteness-abstractness, or
random-sequential thinking in any way. This makes
this theory a useful adjunct to the others. It is
also quite predictive of what might be called
giftedness. Those who have a field-independent
preference due to their narrow focus and ability
to screen can process information more
efficiently, but may miss the social context that
their field-dependent peers more readily
perceive. So an over simplification would be that
field-dependence leads to popularity and
field-independence leads to academic success. - Some scholars feel, however, that the GEFT
measures ability rather than learning style,
making it an inappropriate choice as a tool to
help students understand themselves.
34Elliss Levels of Research?
35Elliss Levels of Research?
- Level I?
- Brain-mind research
- Psychological research on individual differences
- Problems?
- Close association of assessment instruments with
intelligence measures. - Weak link b/w theoretical work, assessment and
practice. - Validity and reliability of assessment measures
- (Ellis, 2001)
36Elliss Levels of Research?
- Level II?
- Dun and Dun meta-analysis
- Oakland study with temperament based learning
style and gifted/nongifted students. - Other studies, etc
- Problems?
- 10 studies eluded to were, with exception of 2
or3, in journals with little reputation for
publishing. - 35 unpublished studies were dissertations.
- 24 of cited dissertation studies done under Dun
et al direction. - (Ellis, 2001)
37Elliss Levels of Research?
- Level II Problems cont.
- Experimental designs used in classroom based
learning styles research weak and have inadequate
controls. - Researcher bias
- Hawthorn effect from doing something new
- Studies conducted by graduate students for
dissertations. - Replicatability problems
- (Ellis, 2001)
38Questions
- After sitting through today's class and talking
specifically about strong and/or possible
evidence of effectiveness, I thought it was
interesting that Dunn, et al, did a meta-
analysis on the learning style model of Dunn and
Dunn and used studies that were either published
in journals of questionable reputation or just
not published at all. And of the 36 studies
included in the meta-analysis, 35 unpublished
studies were doctoral dissertations and 24 of the
cited dissertations were done under the direction
of Dunn and her colleagues......WOW! Aren't Dunn
and her colleagues worried about their own
reputation as legitimate researchers?? Sometimes
I wonder what people are thinking (Marybeth)
39Elliss Levels of Research?
- Level III?
- None
- Ellis mentions the lack of level III research
evaluating learning styles. Is anyone aware of
any studies published since? I assume there isnt
much more research to report, as Ellis dropped
the topic from the new editionthoughts? (Sandra)
40Questions
- There is little empirical support for the
existence of learning styles, however, Ellis
notes that the work of Sternberg and Grigorenko
"seems to offer considerable promise." According
to Ellis, Sternberg believes that in order to
teach all of our students we need to take their
learning styles into account. Doesn't good
teaching encompass presenting information in a
variety of ways? Isn't the Orton-Gilligham
approach based on the idea that information
should be presented visually, orally, and
tactilely? Seeing, hearing, and feeling the
various letters and letter sounds is said to
improve learning and memory. (Erin)
41To be or not to be valid, that is the question?
42Valid?
Pro
Con
- Modalities change over time as demonstrated in
duplications of classic studies (Burns, Johnson
Gable, 1998). - Low and High Low SES achievers differed only on
motivation and persistence factors (Caldwell
Ginther, 1996)
- Dunn Price study of 1980 gifted
students-tactile and kinesthetic(Burns, Johnson
Gable, 1998). - Learning styles information valuable in designing
instruction (Felder et al, 2005)
43Valid?
Pro
Con
- All students in their study performed better on
standardized tests when using their learning
styles and continued trend in next 2 to 3 years
(Burke Dunn, 2003). - A study found differences in styles between
Mexican Americans and European Americans (Alder,
2000) - A study found that students who were taught using
a Multisensory Instructional Pkg based on their
learning styles performed better than a control
group (Farkas, 2003).
- A study examining learning style and preference
for online learning support found no significant
relationship b/w learning style and achievement
on in-class examinations (Johnson et al, 2006). - Learning style theories have devised more than 70
constructs and ways of identifying and
implementing them (Mortimore, 2005). - Definition of intelligence is being reexamined.
(Ellis, 2001).
44Valid?
Pro
Con
- Many differences attributed to learning/cog
styles also attributed to gender diff (Frisby,
1993) - Psychometric intelligence better predictor of
reading/math ach (Frisby, 1993) - Debate over whether self-report methodology
valid? (Frisby, 1993)
- A study examining learning style and preference
for online learning support also found active and
visual learners appeared disadvantaged under
online study gps (Johnson et al, 2006). - Active visual scored lower on in class
examinations following on-line study gp (Johnson
et al, 2006)
45Valid?
Pro
Con
- Construct validity and reliability of learning
styles instruments questionable (Frisby, 1993) - Matching approach may stunt growth (Frisby, 1993)
- Modality model has not yielded the promised
results (Kavale Forness, 1987)
- 99 of Special education teachers thought a
childs modality should be a major consideration
and 93 believed their students learned more when
modalities matched (Arter Jenkins, 1977 as
cited by Kavale Forness, 1987)
46Valid?
Pro
Con
- Learning styles inventories are the first
instances of testing where a failure to solve a
problem puts one in a different category. - Style preference does not necessarily translate
into higher achievement
- Research has shown that field independent or
analytic style correlate with measures of spatial
and verbal ability. - Sternberg-School children who were viewed as
stupid often suffer from merely a mismatch b/w
their style and teacher.
(Ellis, 2001)
47Question
- Learning styles seem to be very controversial due
to the lack of evidence supporting it and the
disagreement about the true definitions. Learning
styles is definitely a difficult construct to
measure again, due to its various definitions,
various inventories with low validity, and
variability within individuals (one individual
can have more than one learning style, primary
and secondary), but because something is
difficult to measure, does that make it invalid
and unworthy of exploring? (Lisa K)
48Debate
Blah, blah
Yap, Yap
49Questions
- If there is such a thing as learning style, which
I believe there is, doesnt direct instruction
disregard many students learning styles?
(Cherisse) - If learning styles exist, that would be a good
point. So then why is direct instruction so
effective? (Amy)
50Debate topics
- Do learning styles exist?
- Are differentiation, multi-sensory and learning
styles related? - Is there utility to learning styles in the
classroom? - Is learning styles worth exploring?
51So what do I do now?
Learning Styles
No Learning Styles
52(No Transcript)
53So what do I do now?
- Sternberg, it is necessary that schools take
into account not only fit between teacher and
student (or principal and teacher) style but also
the way a subject is taught and the way a student
thinks (cited by Ellis, 2001). - Teacher should be sensitive to student
differences, use different modalities, to reach
different learners effectively. - Learners should accommodate to different
situations, some of which match our style and
some of which do not. - (Ellis, 2001)
54So what do I do now?
- Is this good teaching anyway?
- Questions at a variety of levels of thinking
- Providing an overview of material before
proceeding - Allowing sufficient time for info processing
- Setting clear purposes
- Spaced practice
- Multisensory means to convey ideas
- Using a variety of teaching and learning
approaches? - Allowing students choices in methods of
demonstrating learning - If research does not support learning styles then
why differentiate instruction in these ways?
(Ellis, 2001)
55Questions
- I think that the true application of this -
regardless of whether you buy into the idea of
learning styles - is that teachers must
differentiate instruction to meet the needs of
the various students in their classroom. The
examples of how to teach to different styles
listed on page 153 are truly the ways to
differentiate instruction. Is it truly necessary
to talk about this and research it under the name
learning styles or is it appropriate to recognize
that all learners are unique and simply take into
consideration the unique mix as teachers
differentiate instruction? (Jane)
56So what do I do now?
- No matter what, good teaching is good teaching.
Teachers should - Have realistic expectations
- Provide specific feedback
- Clearly communicate
- Make learning relevant to learner
- Engage in positive interactions between student
and teacher
(Alder, 2000)
57So what do I do now?
- Learning styles can be used to guide instructors
on diversity of learning styles within their
class(Felder et al, 2005) - It can help give individual students insight into
their possible strengths and weakness (Felder et
al, 2005) - (Warning) Keep in mind Learning styles have been
shown to change over time and styles shown via
measurements, may contradict student perceptions
and have poor reliability and validity. So use
with caution.
58So what do I do now? (Caldwell et al, 1996).
- Studies show students who had more controlling
teachers performed lower than student of less
controlling teachers. - Learning environments must be structured to
achieve highest level of internal motivation from
all students, particularly for low SES achievers. - There is value in teaching students through
respectful attention and language to be aware of
their own learning strategies (Mortimore, 2005)
59Questions
- Even if there was evidence that teaching to
learning styles improved student achievement, to
what extent would teachers be able to implement
the styles in the classroom? How many styles
would we expect one teacher to teach toward? How
could we really teach each student to their
preference if the research supported learning
styles? And if we cant (if its not feasible),
then why are we researching it with hopes of
improved student achievement? (Christina)
60More Questions
61Questions
- While the research base to support learning
styles is weak, would you recommend to a teacher
to use the different modalities mentioned by
Ellis such as stories, explanations, projects,
and activities? I am not suggesting going as far
to specifically assess or match learning styles
since the research does not support it, but
should teachers still try to vary their teaching
styles with this possibility in mind? Have you
ever worked with a student that you clearly felt
displayed a specific learning style that was in
opposition to the teacher's style of
presentation? (Kourtney)
62Questions
- We have talked in depth about how teachers need
to be properly trained in evaluating research and
how to apply it. However, researchers must
publish unbiased research based findings. The
meta analysis by Dunn supports the use of
learning styles however does not use published
research and then used their own research. Is
there an agreed upon definition for learning
styles? Would a more concrete definition lead to
more applicable research? (Lisa W)
63References
- Alder.N. (2000). PartIII creating multicultural
classrooms. Multlicultural Perspectives, 2(2),
28-31. - Anderson, K.M. (2007). Differentiating
instruction to include all students. Preventing
School Failure, 51(3), 49-54. - Burke, K., Dunn, R. (2007). Learning
style-based teaching to raise minority student
test scores. Clearninghouse 76(2) 103-107. - Burns, D.E., Johnson, S.E., Gable, R.K. (1998).
Can we generalize about the learning style
characteristics. Roeper Review 20(4), 276-282. - Caldwell, G.P., Ginther, D.W. (1996).
Differences in learning styles of low
socioeconomic status for low and high
achievers. Education 117(1), 141-148. - Ellis, A.K. (2001). Research on educational
innovations third edition. Larchmont, NY Eye on
Education. - Farkas, R.D. (2003). Effects of traditional
versus learning-styles - instructional methods on middle school students.
Journal of Educational Research, 9, 42051. - Felder, R.M., Spurlin, J. (2005). Application,
reliability and validity of the index of
learning styles. International Journal of
England Education 21(1), 103-112.
64References
- Frisby, C.L. (1993). One giant step backwards
myths of black - cultural learning styles. School Psychology
Review, 22(3), 535-557. - Johnson, G.M, Johnson, J.A. (2006). Learning
style and preference for online learning
support individual quizzes versus study groups.
(ERIC Document Reproduction Service No.
ED493999) - Kavale, K.A., Forness, S.R. (1987). Substance
over style assessing the efficacy of modality
testing and teaching. Exceptional Children,
54(3), 228-239. - Mortimore, T. (2005). Dyslexia and learning
style-a note of caution. British Journal of
Special Education, 32(3), 145-148. - Personality Pathways. Retrieved July 27 2007.
- http//www.personalitypathways.com/type_inventory
.html