The Toulmin Method

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The Toulmin Method
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Essay One Topic Proposal
Part One Describe your topic. What element(s) of
the food system will you be examining? Remember
that your essay, once finished, must suggest a
solution think in terms of a topic that will
allow you to suggest what you want your imagined
audience to do. Part Two Thinking about what
you have read about the Toulmin method, plan the
argument you will make in your essay.  Provide
the following Claim The conclusion of the
argument(s) you make in your essay in other
words, the idea that will become your thesis
statement. Backing Give a summary of the
evidence that you will provide. Rebuttal
Exceptions or counterarguments to your claim.
Note--this is not entitled to be the outline of
or plan for your essay rather, it is a
brainstorming exercise designed to help you think
critically about the arguments you will make the
and the approach you will take.
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The Toulmin Method

• Stephen Toulmin, originally a British
  logician, is now a professor at USC. He became
  frustrated with the inability of formal logic to
  explain everyday arguments, which prompted him to
  develop his own model of practical reasoning.

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The first triad of his model consists of three
basic elements the claim, ground, and warrant.
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A claim is the point an arguer is trying to
make. The claim is the assertion an arguer wants
us to accept.

• The claim answers the question, So what is your
  point?
• Example You should eat less fast food because
  it is very unhealthy.
• Example Slaughter houses are very cruel, so we
  should support legislation to make them more
  humane.

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There are three basic types of claim

• Fact Claims that focus on empirically verifiable
  phenomena
• Judgment/value Claims that involve opinions,
  attitudes, and subjective evaluations
• Policy Claims that advocate courses of action
  that should be undertaken.

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• The claim is the point an arguer is trying to
  makethe assertion an arguer wants us to accept.
• Policy claims advocate courses of action that
  should be undertaken.
• A policy claim, therefore, is something the
  thesis statement of an argumentative essay or
  research paper must contain.

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Identify the types of claim fact,
judgment/value, or policy.

• You should eat less fast food because it is very
  unhealthy.
• Obesity is unattractive.
• Obesity is unhealthy.
• Slaughter houses cause animals to suffer, so we
  should support legislation to make them more
  humane.

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Identify the types of claim fact,
judgment/value, or policy.

• Claim You should eat less fast food. Policy.
• Claim Obesity is unattractive. Judgment/value.
• ClaimObesity is unhealthy. Fact.
• Claim We should support legislation to make
  them more humane. Policy.

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The term ground refers to the proof or evidence
an arguer offers.  

• The grounds answer the questions, What is your
  proof? or Why?

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Grounds can consist of statistics, quotations,
reports, findings, physical evidence, or various
forms of reasoning.  

• Example Fast food consumption has risen 500
  percent since 1970 and today pervades nearly
  every segment of society, including some public
  school cafeterias. At the same time, obesity
  among children has tripled.

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Grounds can be based on  

• Evidence Facts, statistics, reports, or physical
  proof
• Source Credibility Authorities, experts,
  celebrity endorsers, political pundits, friends,
  or parents
• Analysis and Reasoning Logical deductive and
  inductive reasoning may be offered as proof.

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Not all grounds are equal  

• Some information offered as factual may not be
  true
• Celebrity endorsers, political pundits, family,
  and friends often arent as reliable as
  researchers and scientists
• Induction and deduction can be weak or flawed.

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Satirist Stephen Colbert coined the term
truthiness.

• Truthiness is a quality characterizing a
  truth that a person claims to know intuitively
  from the gut or because it feels right
  without regard to evidence, logic, intellectual
  examination, or facts.

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What is the claim (assertion) in each statement?
What are the grounds (ideas offered as proof)?
Look for implications as well as statements.

• Betty is gaining weight I bet she went off her
  diet."
• That hamburger is probably loaded with calories.

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The warrant is the inferential leap that
connects the claim with the grounds.

• The warrant is typically implicit (unstated)
  and requires the reader or listener to recognize
  the underlying reasoning that makes sense of the
  claim in light of the grounds.

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The warrant performs a linking function by
establishing a mental connection between the
grounds and the claim

• Example Claim Betty is gaining weight I bet
  she went off her diet. Warrant sign reasoning
  weight gain is a typical sign of eating too much.
  
• Example Claim That hamburger is probably
  loaded with calories. Warrant generalization
  most hamburgers are highly caloric.

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Common Warrants

• Argument based on Generalization
• Argument based on Analogy
• Argument via Sign/Clue
• Causal Argument
• Argument from Authority
• Argument from Principle

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Argument based on Generalization

• A very common form of reasoning that assumes
  that what is true of a well-chosen sample is
  likely to hold for a larger group or population,
  or that certain things consistent with the sample
  can be inferred of the group/population. 

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Argument based on Analogy

• Extrapolating from one situation or event based
  on the nature and outcome of a similar situation
  or event.  Has links to case-based and
  precedent-based reasoning used in legal
  discourse. What is important here is the extent
  to which relevant similarities can be established
  between two or more contexts.  Are there
  sufficient, typical, accurate, relevant
  similarities?

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Argument via Sign/Clue

• This is the notion that certain types of
  evidence are symptomatic of some wider principle
  or outcome.  For example, smoke is often
  considered a sign for fire.  Some people think
  high SAT scores are a sign a person is smart and
  will do well in college. 

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Causal Argument

• This is arguing that a given occurrence or
  event is the result of, or is effected by, factor
  X.  Causal reasoning is the most complex of the
  different forms of warrant. The big dangers with
  it follow
• Mixing up correlation with causation
• Falling into the post hoc, ergo propter hoc
  trap.  Closely related to confusing correlation
  and causation, this involves inferring after the
  fact, therefore because of the fact.

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Argument from Authority

• This involves using an authority figure or
  text. Important questions follow
• Does person X or text X constitute a genuinely
  authoritative source on the issue in question? 
• What political, ideological, or economic
  interests does the authority have? 
• Is this the sort of issue in which a significant
  number of authorities are likely to agree on? 

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Argument from Principle

• This involves locating a principle that is
  widely regarded as right and showing that a
  situation exists in which this principle
  applies.  Questions to ask follow
• Is the principle widely accepted, and in what
  groups?
• Are there commonly agreed on exceptions?  Are
  there rival principles that lead to a different
  claim? 
• Does it accurately apply to the situation in
  question?
• Is the principle applied consistently?
• Are the practical consequences of following the
  principle sufficiently desirable? 
• Is the principle based on traditional, religious,
  cultural, or other bases that may negate legal
  rights or other widely-accepted principles?

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Warrants can be based on

• Ethos Source credibility, authority
• Logos Reason-giving, induction, deduction
• Pathos Emotional or motivational appeals
• Shared values Free speech, fairness, etc.
• Note these categories aren't mutually exclusive
  there is considerable overlap among the three.

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Identify how ethos, pathos, and logos can be used
for the following

• You should eat less fast food because it is very
  unhealthy.
• Obesity is unattractive.
• Obesity is unhealthy.
• Slaughter houses cause animals to suffer, so we
  should support legislation to make them more
  humane.

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Identify how ethos, pathos, and logos can be used
for the following

• You should eat less fast food because it is very
  unhealthy. Ethos and Logos Source credibility
  and authority can be used by drawing on credible
  experts, and scientific evidence can be supplied.

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Identify how ethos, pathos, and logos can be used
for the following

• Obesity is unattractive. This is a value
  judgment, so it cannot be proven as a fact
  some cultures, for example, appreciate what
  typical Americans would call obesity. In an
  argument, you would be most likely to draw on
  pathos--emotional or motivational appeals.

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Identify how ethos, pathos, and logos can be used
for the following

• Slaughter houses cause animals to suffer, so we
  should support legislation to make them more
  humane. Ethos and Logos The opinions of
  authorities (Temple Grandin, for example) can be
  supplied, and evidence can be produced to
  document cruelty pathos would be used in the
  documentation of suffering.

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The second triad of the Toulmin model involves
three additional elements

• Backing
• The qualifier
• The rebuttal

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• Backing provides additional justification for the
  warrant backing usually consists of evidence to
  support the type of reasoning employed by the
  warrant it tells us why grounds support claims.
• The qualifier states the degree of force or
  probability to be attached to the claim the
  qualifier states how sure the arguer is about his
  or her claim.
• The rebuttal acknowledges exceptions or
  limitations to the argument the rebuttal admits
  to those circumstances or situations where the
  argument would not hold.

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The qualifier states the degree of force or
probability to be attached to the claim evaluate
the qualifiers below which is most forceful?

• Betty is gaining weight I think she may have
  gone off her diet.
• Betty is gaining weight she has obviously gone
  off her diet.

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What are some rebuttals to these claims?

• Betty is gaining weight I bet she went off her
  diet.
• That hamburger is probably loaded with
  calories.
• Slaughter houses are very cruel, so we should
  support legislation to make them more humane.

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Betty is gaining weight I bet she went off her
diet.

• Betty may still be on her diet, but she may have
  quit exercising.
• Betty may have a medical condition that
  contributes to weight gain.

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That hamburger is probably loaded with
calories.

• The hamburger might be a vegetarian substitute.
• The hamburger may be of relatively small size,
  made of extra lean meat, and on a lower-calorie,
  whole-grain bun.

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Slaughter houses are very cruel, so we should
support legislation to make them more humane.

• Making slaughter houses more humane would
  probably drastically raise the cost of meat.
• Animals were created for humans to use it
  doesnt matter if they suffer. Lots of people
  just dont care.(Note these are examples of
  possible rebuttals an arguer should anticipate
  dealing withthey are not my opinion.)

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Why provide counterarguments?

• Unlike many forms of writing, academic arguments
  will often include discussions of possible
  objections and counterarguments to the position
  being advanced.
• Academic arguments typically take place in
  disciplinary communities in which a variety of
  competing or divergent positions exist.

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Why provide counterarguments?

• When preparing to speak to the community by
  writing an argument, writers are aware of the
  arguments against which they must build their
  claims, and of the counterarguments which are
  likely to emerge.
• Dealing with counterarguments and objections is
  thus a key part of the process of building
  arguments, refining them, interpreting and
  analyzing them.

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There are several main reasons for introducing
counterarguments and objections.

• By demonstrating that the author is aware of
  opposing views and is not trying to sweep them
  under the table, it thus is more likely to make
  the writer's argument seem fair and honest to
  readers, and as a consequence be more persuasive.
• Demonstrating that the writer is thinking
  carefully about the responses of readers and
  anticipating the objections that many readers may
  have shows audience awareness.
• By contrasting one's position with the arguments
  or alternative hypotheses the writer is against,
  he or she clarifies the position that is being
  argued for. 

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Essay One Topic Proposal Part One

• Describe your topic. What element(s) of the food
  system will you be examining?
• Remember that your essay, once finished, must
  suggest a solution think in terms of a topic
  that will allow you to suggest what you want your
  imagined audience to do.
• Your claim, therefore, should be a matter of
  policy.

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Part Two Thinking about the Toulmin method, plan
the argument you will make in your essay. Provide
the following

• Claim The conclusion of the argument(s) you will
  make in your essay--in other words, the idea that
  will become your thesis statement.
• Backing Give a summary of the evidence that you
  will provide.
• Rebuttal Exceptions or counterarguments to your
  claim.

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Rememberthere are three types of claim

• Fact Claims that focus on empirically verifiable
  phenomena
• Judgment/value Claims that involve opinions,
  attitudes, and subjective evaluations
• Policy Claims that advocate courses of action
  that should be undertaken.

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• The thesis statements for this class must be
  argumentative (debatable)
• They should let your readers know what you want
  them to do to solve a problem
• Your claim, therefore, should be able to be
  categorized as a policy claim, not simply a
  factual claim.
• Your claim will also be your opinion, but you
  should not rely on subjective values.