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Title: NVCC Bio 212 Subject: Lymphatics and Immunity Author: Greg Erianne Last modified by: Gregs Desktop Created Date: 1/14/2003 11:18:01 PM Document presentation format – PowerPoint PPT presentation

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Title: NVCC Bio 212


1
Review slides Lecture Exam 2
2
Respiratory System
Respiration (in the respiratory system) is the
process of exchanging gases between the
atmosphere and body cells. It consists of the
following events (in order)
  • pulmonary ventilation
  • external respiration
  • transport
  • internal respiration
  • cellular respiration

Functions of the respiratory system
You should know the order of these events.
We breathe 1. To provide O2 for cellular
respiration and 2. To rid
our bodies of CO2 (waste gas)
3
Organs of the Respiratory System
Upper respiratory tract nose, nasal cavity,
sinuses, and pharynx Lower respiratory tract
larynx, trachea, bronchial tree,
lungs Conducting portion carries air nose to
the terminal bronchioles Respiratory portion
exchanges gases respiratory bronchioles and
alveoli
4
Mucous in Respiratory Tract
Respiratory mucosa lines the conducting
passageways and is responsible for filtering,
warming, and humidifying air.
Pseudostratified, ciliated columnar epithelium
with goblet cells
Respiratory epithelium is interrupted by
stratified squamous epithelium in the oro- and
laryngopharynx
5
Nose and Paranasal Sinuses
The nose 1) warms 2) cleans 3)
humidifies air
Be able to label this
Paranasal sinuses are mucus membrane-lined,
air-filled spaces in maxillary, frontal, ethmoid,
and sphenoid bones that drain into the nasal
cavity
Figure from Martini, Anatomy Physiology,
Prentice Hall, 2001
  • Sinuses
  • Reduce skull weight
  • Serve as resonating chambers

6
Larynx
Prevents swallowed material from passing into
trachea
major components of larynx
Posterior
Figure from Martini, Anatomy Physiology,
Prentice Hall, 2001
7
Trachea Primary Bronchi
Posterior
(Smooth muscle)
Note that the trachea is anterior to the esophagus
(T5)
(T6)
Anterior
C-rings of cartilage 16-20 incomplete rings
completed posteriorly by trachealis muscle keep
trachea open (patent)
Figures from Martini, Anatomy Physiology,
Prentice Hall, 2001
8
Bronchial Tree
(No cartilage,few/no smooth muscle)
(Cartilage smooth muscle)
(Smooth muscle)
Bronchi
Alveolar structures
Bronchioles
Primary Secondary (lobar) Tertiary (segmental)
Alveolar ducts Alveolar sacs Alveoli
Intralobular Terminal Respiratory
Trachea
respiratory portion
conducting portion
Know this chart
9
Bronchial Tree
Hilus of lung is the medial opening for air
passageways, blood vessels, nerves, and
lymphatics.
Carina
Bronchi - Primary w/ blood vessels -
Secondary (lobar) two on left, three on right
- Tertiary (segmental) supplies a broncho-
pulmonary segment 10 on right, 8 on
left Bronchioles - Intralobular supply lobules,
the basic unit of lung - Terminal 50-80 per
lobule - Respiratory a few air sacs budding
from theses
Bronchioles are to the respiratory system what
arterioles are to the circulatory system
Intralobular
Figure from Martini, Anatomy Physiology,
Prentice Hall, 2001
10
Lobules of the Lung
The Lobule is the basic unit of structure and
function in the lung
(Intralobular)
Terminal and respiratory bronchioles are lined
with cuboidal epithelium, few cilia, and no
goblet cells
Figure from Martini, Anatomy Physiology,
Prentice Hall, 2001
11
Gases and Pressure
  • Our atmosphere is composed of several gases and
    exerts pressure
  • 78 N2, 21 O2, 0.4 H2O, 0.04 CO2
  • 760 mm Hg, 1 ATM, 29.92 Hg, 15 lbs/in2,1034 cm
    H2O
  • Each gas within the atmosphere exerts a pressure
    of its own (partial) pressure, according to its
    concentration in the mixture (Daltons Law)
  • Example Atmosphere is 21 O2, so O2 exerts a
    partial pressure of 760 mm Hg. x .21 160 mm
    Hg.
  • Partial pressure of O2 is designated as PO2

12
Normal Inspiration
  • Intra-alveolar (intrapulmonary) pressure
    decreases to about 758mm Hg as the thoracic
    cavity enlarges (P ? 1/V)
  • Atmospheric pressure (now higher than that in
    lungs) forces air into the airways
  • Compliance ease with which lungs can expand

An active process
Phrenic nerves of the cervical plexus stimulate
diaphragm to contract and move downward and
external (inspiratory) intercostal muscles
contract, expanding the thoracic cavity and
reducing intrapulmonary pressure. Attachment of
parietal pleura to thoracic wall pulls visceral
pleura, and lungs follow.
13
Maximal (Forced) Inspiration
Thorax during normal inspiration
  • Thorax during maximal inspiration
  • aided by contraction of sternocleidomastoid and
    pectoralis minor muscles

Compliance decreases as lung volume
increases Costal (shallow) breathing vs.
diaphragmatic (deep) breathing
14
Normal Expiration
  • due to elastic recoil of the lung tissues and
    abdominal organs
  • a PASSIVE process (no muscle contraction
    involved, no energy needed)

Normal expiration is caused by - elastic recoil
of the lungs (elastic rebound) and abdominal
organs - surface tension between walls of
alveoli (what keeps them from collapsing
completely?)
15
Maximal (Forced) Expiration
  • contraction of abdominal wall muscles
  • contraction of posterior (expiratory) internal
    intercostal muscles
  • An active, NOT passive, process

16
Terms Describing Respiratory Rate
  • Eupnea quiet (resting) breathing
  • Apnea suspension of breathing
  • Hyperpnea forced/deep breathing
  • Dyspnea difficult/labored breathing
  • Tachypnea rapid breathing
  • Bradypnea slow breathing

Know these
17
Alveoli and Respiratory Membrane
  • Respiratory Membrane consists of the walls of
    the alveolus and the capillary, and the shared
    basement membrane between them

Mechanisms that prevent alveoli from filling with
fluid
  • cells of alveolar wall are tightly joined
    together
  • 2) the relatively high osmotic pressure of the
    interstitial fluid draws water out of them
  • 3) there is low pressure in the pulmonary circuit

Surfactant resists the tendency of alveoli to
collapse on themselves.
18
Diffusion Through Respiratory Membrane
The driving for the exchange of gases between
alveolar air and capillary blood is the
difference in partial pressure between the gases.
alveolus
tissues
Because O2 and CO2 are relatively insoluble in
H2O (plasma), RBCs are used to carry or transform
these gases.
19
Oxygen Transport
  • Most oxygen binds to hemoglobin to form
    oxyhemoglobin (HbO2)
  • Oxyhemoglobin releases oxygen in the regions of
    body cells
  • Much oxygen is still bound to hemoglobin in the
    venous blood

Tissues
Lungs
But what special properties of the Hb molecule
allow it to reversibly bind O2?
20
The O2-Hb Dissociation Curve
Recall that Hb can bind up to 4 molecules of O2
100 saturation At 75 saturation, Hb binds 3
molecules of O2 on average Sigmoidal (S) shape of
curve indicates that the binding of one O2 makes
it easier to bind the next O2
This curve tells us what the percent saturation
of Hb will be at various partial pressures of O2
21
Oxygen Release
  • Amount of oxygen released from oxyhemoglobin
    increases as
  • partial pressure of carbon dioxide increases
  • the blood pH decreases and H increases (Bohr
    Effect shown below)
  • blood temperature increases (not shown)
  • concentration of 2,3 bisphosphoglycerate (BPG)
    increases (not shown)

22
Carbon Dioxide Transport in Tissues
  • dissolved in plasma (7)
  • combined with hemoglobin as carbaminohemoglobin(1
    5-25)
  • in the form of bicarbonate ions (68-78)

CO2 H2O ? H2CO3 H2CO3 ? H HCO3-
CO2 exchange in TISSUES
23
Carbon Dioxide Transport in Lungs
CO2 exchange in LUNGS
24
Summary of Gas Transport
PO2 40 mm Hg
PO2 100 mm Hg
PO2 100 mm Hg
PO2 40 mm Hg
T I S SUES
LUNGS
PCO2 45 mm Hg
PCO2 40 mm Hg
PCO2 40 mm Hg
PCO2 45 mm Hg
CO2 H2O ? H2CO3 ? H HCO3-
H HCO3- ? H2CO3 ? CO2 H2O
25
Control of Respiration
  • Control of respiration is accomplished by
  • 1) Local regulation
  • 2) Nervous system regulation
  • 1) Local regulation
  • ? alveolar ventilation (O2), ? Blood flow to
    alveoli
  • ? alveolar ventilation (O2), ? Blood flow to
    alveoli
  • ? alveolar CO2, bronchodilation
  • ? alveolar CO2, bronchoconstriction

26
Control of Respiration
  • 2) Nervous System Control
  • The DRG and VRG in medullary respiratory
    rhythmicity center control rate/depth of
    breathing
  • Changes in breathing
  • CO2 is most powerful respiratory stimulant
  • Recall H2O CO2 ? H2CO3 ? H HCO3-
  • Peripheral chemoreceptors (aortic/carotid bodies)
  • ? PCO2, ? pH , ? PO2 stimulate breathing
  • Central chemoreceptors (medulla)
  • ? PCO2, ? pH stimulate breathing

27
Major Organs of Digestive System
Digestion is the mechanical and chemical
breakdown of food into a small enough form that
cells can absorb
  • - Two major movements stimulating digestion 1)
    segmentation and 2) peristalsis
  • Organs can be divided into the
  • Digestive tract (primary) (alimentary canal)
    tube extending from mouth to anus (about 30 ft.)
    in contact with food
  • Accessory organs (secondary) teeth, tongue,
    salivary glands, liver, gallbladder, and
    pancreas provide secretions for digestion

28
Alimentary Canal Wall
Know the 4 layers of the alimentary canal
Figure from Martini, Anatomy Physiology,
Prentice Hall, 2001
29
Innervation of the Alimentary Canal
The alimentary canal has extensive sympathetic
and parasympathetic innervation - mainly in
the muscularis externa - regulates its tone
and the strength, rate, and
velocity of muscular contractions
  • submucosal plexus controls secretions/blood
    flow
  • myenteric plexus controls gastrointestinal
    motility/sphincters
  • parasympathetic division of ANS increases
    activities of digestive system and relaxes
    sphincters
  • sympathetic division of ANS generally inhibits
    digestive actions and contracts sphincters

30
Palate
  • roof of oral cavity

Figure from Holes Human AP, 12th edition, 2010
(adenoids)
Important in separating the nasopharynx from the
pharynx during swallowing
Epiglottis prevents food from entering trachea
during swallowing
31
Secondary (Permanent) Teeth
Figure from Holes Human AP, 12th edition, 2010
Total of 32 secondary (permanent) teeth total
of 20 primary (baby, milk) teeth
1
16
Be able to label this diagram
I C Big Molars!!!
32
17
Know the order of these
32
Functions of Saliva
  • Moistens food
  • Binds food particles
  • Dissolves food for tasting
  • Begins chemical digestion of complex CHO
    (amylase)
  • Cleans teeth and mouth (pH 6.5 7.5)
  • Anti-microbial (IgA and lysozyme)

33
Pharynx
Figure from Holes Human AP, 12th edition, 2010
Pharynx aids swallowing by grasping food and
moving it toward the esophagus.
34
Three Phases of the Swallowing Reflex
Only voluntary phase is the buccal (oral) phase,
i.e., the initiation of swallowing, then
  • soft palate and uvula raise
  • hyoid bone and larynx elevate

Pharyngeal phase
  • epiglottis closes off top of trachea
  • longitudinal muscles of pharynx contract

reflexive
  • inferior constrictor muscles relax and
    esophagus opens

Esophageal phase
  • peristaltic waves push food through pharynx

Esophagus conveys food from pharynx to stomach by
peristalsis
35
Overview of Gastric Control/Secretion
Key

Stimulation
-
Mucous Cells
Inhibition
Emptying of Stomach (? H )
Stomach Molility (Segmentation/Peristalsis)
ECL Cells Histamine
Endocrine Factor


Exocrine Factor


(cephalic/gastric phases)

D cells Somatostatin
Intrinsic Factor

B12
Parietal Cells
pH lt 3.0
-

H Cl-
HCO3- (alkaline tide)





(intestinal phase)
Stretch of stomach
pH gt 3.0(dilution of H)
Fats in Small Intestine
Chief Cells
Peptides
Pepsinogen
Pepsin
Protein Breakdown
Food in Stomach
Ileum
Fat Breakdown
Lipases
36
Regulation of Pancreas/Intestinal Digestion
Key

Stimulation
Acidic Chyme Enters Duodenum

(brush border)


Enterokinase
Cholecystokinin(CCK)
Secretin

Trypsinogen
Trypsin



Gallbladder Contraction
Relaxation of hepatopancreatic sphincter
ChymotrypsinogenProcarboxypeptidaseProelastase
ChymotrypsinCarboxypeptidaseElastase
Pancreas
Bile and Pancreatic ducts
(proenzymes, zymogens)
Proteins
Bile
Lipases
HCO3-, PO43-
Nucleases(DNA, RNA)
Amylase(glycogen, starches)
(emulsification)
Di- and tripeptides
TriglyceridesCholesterolFat Soluble Vitamins
? pH to 8 (req. for enzyme action)
Nucleotides
Mono-, di-, trisaccharides
Action of brush border enzymes
Fatty acids,monoglycerides
Lacteals
Portal Vein
Amino acids
Conversion to chylomicrons
Monosaccharides
Subclavian vein
37
Liver Functions (over 200!)
  • Three general categories of function
  • 1) Metabolic regulation
  • Interconversion of carbohydrates, lipids, amino
    acids
  • Removal of wastes
  • Vitamin and mineral metabolism
  • Drug inactivation
  • Storage of fats, glycogen, iron, vit A/B12/D/E/K
  • 2) Hematological regulation
  • Phagocytosis and antigen presentation ab removal
  • Synthesis of plasma proteins
  • Removal of circulating hormones
  • Removal of worn-out RBCs (Kupffer cells)
  • Removal or storage of toxins
  • 3) Synthesis and secretion of bile (digestion)

Know items in red
38
Paths of Blood and Bile in Hepatic Lobule
Figure from Holes Human AP, 12th edition, 2010
Livers role in digestion is production of bile
Sinusoid
Hepatic portal vein ? sinusoids ? central vein ?
hepatic veins ? inferior vena cava
Hepatic artery
39
Composition of Bile (Chole-)
Yellowish-green liquid continually secreted by
hepatocytes
  • water
  • bile salts (bile acids)
  • derived from cholesterol
  • emulsification of fats (increases surface area
    for digestive enzymes large fat blobs become
    smaller blobs)
  • absorption of fatty acids, cholesterol, and
    fat-soluble vitamins
  • 80 are recycled (reabsorbed and reused)
    enterohepatic circulation of bile
  • 20 excreted in feces (disposes of excess
    cholesterol)
  • bile pigments (bilirubin and biliverdin from
    breakdown of RBCs)
  • electrolytes

The hormone secretin, released by the small
intestine, stimulates the hepatocytes to produce
a bicarbonate-rich bile that neutralizes acidic
chyme coming from the stomach
40
Gallbladder Cyst(o)-
Figure from Martini, Anatomy Physiology,
Prentice Hall, 2001
Main function is to store and concentrate bile
between meals, and release concentrated bile
under the influence of CCK
41
Regulation of Bile Release from GB
Figure from Holes Human AP, 12th edition, 2010
  • fatty chyme entering duodenum stimulates the GB
    to release bile (via CCK)

Secretin causes the bile ducts (and pancreatic
ducts) to secrete bile rich in HCO3-
42
Actions of Cholecystokinin (CCK) on Digestion
Figure adapted from Barrett, K.,
Gastrointestinal Physiology, Lange, 2006
CCK
Contraction of Gallbladder
Secretion of pancreatic enzymes
Reduced emptying of stomach
Relaxation of hepatopancreatic sphincter
Protein, CHO, lipid absorption and
digestion Matching of nutrient delivery to
digestive and absorptive capability
43
Small Intestine
  • Small Intestine
  • Three major parts
  • Duodenum mixing chamber mucus, buffers,
    enzymes
  • Jejunum digestion and absorption
  • Ileum connects to cecum of large intestine
  • Blood supply and drainage via superior mesenteric
    artery/vein
  • Surface area greatly increased, especially in the
    jejunum, by
  • Plicae
  • Villi
  • Microvilli

Know these things
44
Small Intestine (contd)
  • Secretions/Motility
  • mucus secretion (protective) stimulated by
    presence of chyme in small intestine
  • distension of intestinal wall activates nerve
    plexuses in wall of small intestine
  • motility/secretion stimulated by gastroenteric
    reflex
  • parasympathetics trigger release of intestinal
    enzymes
  • Absorption
  • Protein, CHO, electrolytes gt to hepatic portal
    vein into liver
  • Fats via chylomicrons and lacteals -gt circulation
    (2nd pass)
  • Movements
  • Local via myenteric plexuses
  • Long distance via stomach filling
  • Gastroenteric reflex
  • Gastroileal reflex

Know these things
45
Secretions of Small Intestine
  • peptidase breaks down peptides into amino
    acids
  • sucrase, maltase, lactase break down
    disaccharides into monosaccharides
  • intestinal lipase breaks down fats into fatty
    acids and glycerol
  • enterokinase converts trypsinogen to trypsin
  • gastrin/somatostatin hormones that
    stimulate/inhibit acid secretion by stomach
  • cholecystokinin (CCK) hormone that inhibits
    gastric glands, stimulates pancreas to release
    enzymes in pancreatic juice, stimulates
    gallbladder to release bile, and relaxes
    hepatopancreatic sphincter (of Oddi)
  • secretin stimulates pancreas to release
    bicarbonate ions in pancreatic juice stimulates
    gall bladder to release bicarbonate-rich bile

Brush border
See Table 23.32 in Marieb for summary of
digestive enzymes great to use for XC!!
46
Absorption of Fats in the Small Intestine
Figure from Holes Human AP, 12th edition, 2010
  • fatty acids and glycerol
  • several steps
  • absorbed into lymph into blood

Chylomicrons contain TG, cholesterol, and
phospholipids
47
Functions of Large Intestine
  • little or no digestive function
  • absorbs water, bile salts, and electrolytes
  • secretes mucus (lubrication, binding,
    protection, pH)
  • conversion of bilirubin (uro- and
    stercobilinogen)
  • houses intestinal flora (800 species of
    bacteria) and absorbs vitamins liberated by
    bacterial action (K, B5, and Biotin) produces
    intestinal gas (flatus)
  • forms and stores feces
  • carries out defecation

48
Large Intestine
Blood supply/drainage via superior mesenteric
arteries/veins
49
Movements of Large Intestine
  • slower and less frequent than those of small
    intestine
  • mixing movements (haustral churning every 30
    min)
  • mass movements - usually follow meals
    (stimulated by distension of stomach and
    duodenum)
  • gastrocolic reflex
  • duodenocolic reflex
  • peristaltic wave from transverse colon through
    rest of large intestine

50
The Rectum, Anal Canal, and Anus
Figure from Holes Human AP, 12th edition, 2010
Temporary storage of fecal material in rectum
triggers the urge to defecate Internal anal
sphincter is usually contracted but relaxes in
response to distension. External sphincter must
be tensed to retain feces
Rectal valves
Procto- anus or rectum
(Keratinzed strat. squamous epithelium)
51
Parasympathetic Defecation Reflex
Note that this reflex 1) relaxes (opens) the
internal sphincter and 2) constricts (closes)
the external sphincter Need voluntary relaxation
of the external sphincter for defecation
52
Nutrients
Nutrients chemical substances supplied by the
environment required for survival (used for
growth, repair, or maintenance of the body)
  • Macronutrients
  • carbohydrates
  • proteins
  • fats
  • Micronutrients
  • vitamins
  • minerals
  • Essential Nutrients
  • human cells cannot synthesize
  • include certain fatty acids, amino acids,
    vitamins

53
Nitrogen Balance
Variety of compounds in the body contain nitrogen
(N) amino acids, purines, pyrimidines, creatine,
porphyrins. The body neither stores nor maintains
reserves of N. Theres only about 1 kg of N in
body at any one time. During starvation,
N-containing compounds, like skeletal muscle, are
conserved CHO and fats are metabolized first
(protein-sparing effect)
  • nitrogen balance - amount of nitrogen taken in
    is equal to amount excreted
  • negative nitrogen balance develops from
    starvation
  • positive nitrogen balance develops in growing
    children, pregnant women, or an athlete in
    training

54
Body Mass Index
  • occurs when caloric intake in the form of food
    equals caloric output from BMR and muscular
    activities
  • positive energy balance leads to weight gain
  • negative energy balance leads to weight loss

Body Mass Index (BMI) Wt (kg) / Height2 (m)
Thin lt 18.5
Healthy or Normal 18.5 24.9
Overweight 25.0 29.9
Obese 30.0 39.9
Morbidly Obese ? 40.0
Source World Health Organization
55
Calculations of RDA/Maximums
  • Energy yields
  • Protein, CHO 4 Kcal/gm
  • Fats 9 (or 9.5) Kcal/gm
  • No more than 30 of calories from fat
  • RDA for protein 0.8 g/kg body weight
  • Recall (2.2 lbs/kg)

56
Example Calculations - Fat
  • What is the maximum number of grams of fat to be
    consumed per day for a patient on a 1500 calorie
    diet?
  • Find maximum number of CALORIES from fat
  • 1500 calories/day x 30 450 calories/day max
    from fat
  • 2) Calculate number of GRAMS of fat in 450
    calories

450 calories/day X 1 gram fat 47 grams
fat/day 9.5
calories
450 calories/day X 1 gram fat 50 grams
fat/day 9.0
calories
57
Example Calculations - Protein
  • What is the minimum number of grams of protein
    recommended that should be consumed per day for a
    175 lb patient?
  • Find patients weight in Kg.
  • 175 lbs X 1 Kg 79.5 Kg
  • 2.2 lbs.
  • 2) Calculate number of GRAMS of protein required
    per day

79.5 Kg X 0.8 g protein/day 63.5 grams
protein/day Kg
58
Summary of Lipoproteins
Designation Origin Action
Chylomicron GI tract Transports dietary fats (mainly triglycerides) to liver for processing
Very Low Density Lipoprotein (VLDL) Liver Transports triglycerides from liver to adipose cells
Low Density Lipoprotein (LDL) Liver Transports cholesterol from liver to cells in body
High Density Lipoprotein (HDL) Liver Removes excess cholesterol from cells and transports to liver
59
The Fat-soluble Vitamins
  • Absorbed with fats in digestive tract
  • Function/Other sources
  • Vitamin A structural component of retinal (night
    vision)
  • Vitamin D
  • increases absorption of calcium and phosphorus
    from intestine
  • skin and UV light
  • Vitamin E
  • stabilizes internal cellular membranes
  • antioxidant
  • Vitamin K
  • Clotting (Klotting)
  • bacteria in intestine and green, leafy vegetables

60
Water-soluble Vitamins
  • Rapidly exchanged between fluid compartments of
    digestive tract and circulating blood
  • Excesses excreted in urine
  • Vitamins B12 and C are stored in larger
    quantities than other water-soluble vitamins
  • B vitamins know these functions
  • as a group, are coenzymes used to harvest energy
  • Vitamin B12 is important in hematopoiesis and
    maintenance of myelin sheath and epithelial cells
  • Vitamin C (ascorbic acid) know these functions
  • collagen production
  • Antioxidant / immune system booster
  • ? absorption of iron

61
Minerals
Mineral Symbol Major/Trace Primary Distribution Major Function(s) Major Sources Conditions
Calcium Ca Major Bones Teeth Structure of bone/teeth nerve impulse conduction muscle contraction milk kidney stones - stunted growth
Phosphorus P Major Bones Teeth Structure of bone/teeth ATP Nucleic acid proteins meats cheese milk none - stunted growth
Potassium K Major Intracellular Fluid maintenance of resting membrane potential (RMP) avocados bananas potatoes none - muscular cardiac problems
Sodium Na Major Extracellular Fluid maintenance of RMP, electrolyte, water, pH balance table salt cured ham hyperten-sion, edema - cramps, convulsions
Chlorine Cl Major Extracellular Fluid maintenance of RMP, electrolyte, water, pH balance table salt cured ham vomiting - muscle cramps
62
Minerals
Mineral Symbol Major/Trace Primary Distribution Major Function(s) Major Sources Conditions
Magnesium Mg Major Bones needed in mitochondria for cellular respiration ATP/ADP conversion milk dairy legumes diarrhea - neuro-muscular problems
Iron Fe Trace Blood part of hemoglobin liver liver damage - anemia
Iodine I Trace thyroid essential in the synthesis of thyroid hormones iodized table salt thyroid hormone imbalance - goiter
Zinc Zn Trace liver, kidneys, brain wound healing part of several enzymes meats cereals slurred speech - decreased immunity
63
Metabolism
Hormones Fed Insulin Fasted Glucagon,
Corticosteroids, Epi/NE
-olysis ? breakdown of -neo ? new-genesis ?
creation of
  • Glycolysis metabolism of glucose to pyruvate
    (Fed)
  • Gluconeogenesis metabolism of pyruvate to
    glucose (CHO from non-CHO source) (Fasted)
  • Glycogenesis metabolism of glucose to glycogen
    (Fed)
  • Glycogenolysis metabolism of glycogen to
    glucose (Fasted)
  • Lipogenesis creation of new triglyceride (fat)
    (Fed)
  • Lipolysis breakdown of triglyceride into
    glycerol and fatty acids (Fasted)

Major purpose of BOTH states is to maintain
homeostatic levels of glucose in blood
64
Basal Metabolic Rate
  • Basal metabolic rate (BMR)
  • rate at which body expends energy at rest
    (kcal/hr)
  • primarily reflects energy needed to support
    activities of organs
  • varies with gender, body size, body temperature,
    and endocrine function

BMR is proportional to body weight Bodys basal
metabolic rate (BMR) falls 10 during sleep and
about 40 during prolonged starvation
  • Energy needed
  • to maintain BMR
  • to support resting muscular activity
  • to maintain body temperature
  • for growth in children and pregnant women

BMR is profoundly affected by circulating thyroid
hormone levels
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